Editing Tobacco smoking (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of tobacco|History of smoking}}

===Use in ancient cultures===
[[File:Aztec feast 1.jpg|thumb|Aztec women are handed flowers and smoking tubes before eating at a banquet, [[Florentine Codex]], 16th century.]]

One archeological find raises the possibility of tobacco-smoking in the area of present-day Nevada about 12,000 years ago.<ref>
{{cite news
|last1                = Nuwer
|first1               = Rachel
|author-link1         = Rachel Nuwer
|editor-last1         = Stix
|editor-first1        = Gary
|editor-link1         = Gary Stix
|title                = Mammoths Roamed when Humans Started Using Tobacco at Least 12,300 Years Ago
|url                  = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mammoths-roamed-when-humans-started-using-tobacco-at-least-12-300-years-ago/
|work                 = Scientific American
|publisher            = Springer Nature
|publication-date     = 11 October 2021
|access-date          = 16 February 2025
|quote                = [...] researchers [...] identified the charred remnants of four tobacco seeds. Radiocarbon dating of willow wood charcoal also recovered from the hearth revealed that the entire contents, including the seeds, were approximately 12,300 years old. [...] [Daron] Duke and his colleagues do not know in what manner the tobacco was used, but they believe it could have been smoked or put behind the lip and sucked.
}}
</ref>

Systematic tobacco-use dates back to as early as 5000–3000 BC when the agricultural product began to be cultivated in Mesoamerica and South America; consumption later came to involve burning the plant substance - either by accident or with the intent of exploring other means of consumption.<ref name="Gateley2004">{{Cite book |last=Gately |first=Iain |title=Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x41jVocj05EC |access-date=22 March 2009 |orig-year=2003 |year=2004 |publisher=Diane |isbn=978-0-8021-3960-3 |pages=3–7 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114080723/https://books.google.com/books?id=x41jVocj05EC |url-status=live}}</ref> The practice worked its way into [[shamanism | shamanistic]] rituals.<ref name="Wilbert1993">{{Cite book |last=Wilbert |first=Johannes |title=Tobacco and Shamanism in South America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPCuo4LkrIwC |access-date=22 March 2009 |date=28 July 1993 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-05790-4|archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114080724/https://books.google.com/books?id=qPCuo4LkrIwC |url-status=live}}</ref> Many ancient civilizations – such as the [[Babylonians]], the Indians, and the Chinese – burned incense during religious rituals. Smoking in the Americas probably had its origins in the incense-burning ceremonies of [[shamanism|shamans]] but was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool.<ref name="Robicsek1979">{{Cite book|last=Robicsek|first= Francis|title=The Smoking Gods: Tobacco in Maya Art, History, and Religion| date=January 1979 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-1511-5|page=30}}</ref> The smoking of tobacco and various hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world.<ref name=Hallucinogenic_pre-Columbian>{{cite journal |title=Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=42–49 |author=F.J.Carod-Artal |date=1 July 2011 |journal=Neurología |doi=10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010 |pmid=21893367 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Also, to stimulate respiration, [[tobacco smoke enema | tobacco-smoke enema]]s were used.<ref>{{Citation |doi = 10.2307/2843888 |last = Nordenskiold |first = Erland |title = The American Indian as an Inventor |jstor = 2843888 |journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |volume = 59 |page=277 |year = 1929}}</ref>

Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it in [[ceremonial pipe]]s, either in sacred ceremonies or to seal bargains.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=John Gottlieb Ernestus |last1=Heckewelder |author-link1=John Heckewelder |first2=William Cornelius |last2=Reichel |author-link2=William Cornelius Reichel |title=History, manners, and customs of the Indian nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring states |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPCuo4LkrIwC |format=PDF |access-date=22 March 2009 |orig-year=1876 |date=June 1971 |publisher=The Historical Society of Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-405-02853-3 |page=149 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114080724/https://books.google.com/books?id=qPCuo4LkrIwC |url-status=live}}</ref> Adults as well as children enjoyed the practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diéreville |first2=John Clarence |last2=Webster |first3=Alice de Kessler Lusk|last3=Webster | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oGdNnQEACAAJ | title = Relation of the voyage to Port Royal in Acadia or New France |year=1933 |publisher=The Champlain Society |quote=They smoke with excessive eagerness […] men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way}}</ref> It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator{{cn|date=February 2025}} and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the [[Great Spirit]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gottsegen|first=Jack Jacob |title=Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1uNCAAAAIAAJ&q=Tobacco:+A+Study+of+Its+Consumption+in+the+United+States |access-date=22 March 2009|year=1940|publisher=Pitman Publishing Company|page=107|postscript=>|archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114080757/https://books.google.com/books?id=1uNCAAAAIAAJ&q=Tobacco:+A+Study+of+Its+Consumption+in+the+United+States |url-status=live | quote = Smoke also provided another means of communication to the Great Spirit.}}</ref>

Apart from smoking, tobacco was used as medicine. As a pain killer, it was used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a [[poultice]]. [[Desert Indians]] regarded smoking as a cure for colds, especially if the tobacco was mixed with the leaves of the small [[Desert sage]], ''[[Salvia dorrii]]'', or the root of [[Balsam of Peru|Indian balsam]] or [[cough root]], ''Leptotaenia multifida'', the addition of which was thought to be particularly good for [[asthma]] and [[tuberculosis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balls |first=Edward K. |title=Early Uses of California Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyusesofcalif00ball |url-access=registration |quote=Early Uses of California Plants. |access-date=22 March 2009 |date=1 October 1962 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-00072-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlyusesofcalif00ball/page/81 81]–85}}</ref>

===Popularization===
{{For|more about the commercial development of tobacco|History of commercial tobacco in the United States}}

[[File:Gentlemen Smoking and Playing Backgammon in a Tavern, Dirck Hals 1627.png|thumb|left|upright=1.05|''Gentlemen Smoking and Playing Backgammon in a Tavern'' by [[Dirck Hals]], 1627]]

In 1612, six years after the settlement of [[Jamestown, Virginia]], [[John Rolfe]] was credited as the first settler to successfully raise tobacco as a cash crop. The demand quickly grew as tobacco, referred to as "brown gold", revived the [[Virginia joint stock company]] from its failed gold expeditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jordan|first=Ervin L. Jr.|title=Jamestown, Virginia, 1607–1907: An Overview|url=http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/socialstudies/projects/jvc/overview.html|access-date=22 February 2009|publisher=University of Virginia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021017223417/http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/socialstudies/projects/jvc/overview.html|archive-date=17 October 2002}}</ref> To meet demands from the Old World, tobacco was grown in succession, quickly depleting the soil. This became a motivator to settle west into the unknown continent, and likewise an expansion of tobacco production.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kulikoff|first=Allan|title=Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake|url=https://archive.org/details/tobaccoslavesdev0000kuli|url-access=registration|quote=Tobacco & Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake.|access-date=22 March 2009|date=1 August 1986|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-4224-9}}</ref>

Frenchman [[Jean Nicot]] (from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to France in 1560, and tobacco then spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils".<ref name="L&M"/> Like tea, coffee, and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that was originally used as a form of medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilman|Xun|2004|p=38}}</ref> Tobacco was introduced around 1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day Gambia and Senegal. At the same time, caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the areas around [[Timbuktu]], and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s.

Soon after its introduction to the Old World, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders. [[James VI and I]], King of Scotland and England, produced the treatise ''[[A Counterblaste to Tobacco]]'' in 1604, and also introduced excise duty on the product. [[Murad IV]], sultan of the [[Ottoman Empire]] 1623–40 was among the first to attempt a smoking ban by claiming it was a threat to public morals and health. The [[Chongzhen Emperor]] of China issued an edict banning smoking two years before his death and the overthrow of the [[Ming dynasty]]. Later, the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] rulers of the [[Qing dynasty]], would proclaim smoking "a more heinous crime than that even of neglecting archery". In [[Edo period]] Japan, some of the earliest tobacco plantations were scorned by the [[shogunate]] as being a threat to the military economy by letting valuable farmland go to waste for the use of a recreational drug instead of being used to plant food crops.<ref name="Screech-Smoke">{{Harvnb|Gilman|Xun|2004|pp=92–99}}</ref>

[[File:Bonsack machine.png|thumb|Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine, as shown on U.S. patent 238,640]]

Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634, the [[Patriarch of Moscow]] forbade the sale of tobacco, and sentenced men and women who flouted the ban to have their nostrils slit and their backs flayed. Pope [[Urban VIII]] likewise condemned smoking on holy places in a papal bull of 1624. Despite some concerted efforts, restrictions and bans were largely ignored. When [[James I of England]], a staunch smoking opponent and the author of ''[[A Counterblaste to Tobacco]]'', tried to curb the new trend by enforcing a 4000% tax increase on tobacco in 1604 it was unsuccessful, as suggested by the presence of around 7,000 tobacco outlets in London by the early 17th century. From this point on for some centuries, several administrations withdrew from efforts at discouragement and instead turned tobacco trade and cultivation into sometimes lucrative government monopolies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilman|Xun|2004|pp=15–16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=King James I of England|title=A Counterblaste to Tobacco|url=http://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/james/blaste/|access-date=22 March 2009|date=16 April 2002|orig-year=1604|publisher=University of Texas at Austin|archive-date=18 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518062807/http://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/james/blaste/|url-status=live}}</ref>

By the mid-17th century, most major civilizations had been introduced to tobacco smoking and in many cases had already assimilated it into the native culture, despite some continued attempts upon the parts of rulers to eliminate the practice with penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product and plant, followed the major trade routes to major ports and markets, and then into the hinterlands. The English language term ''smoking'' appears to have entered currency in the late 18th century, before which less abbreviated descriptions of the practice such as ''drinking smoke'' were also in use.<ref name="L&M">{{Cite book|first1=John|last1=Lloyd|first2=John|last2=Mitchinson|title=The Book of General Ignorance|date=25 July 2008|publisher=Harmony Books|isbn=978-0-307-39491-0|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofgeneralign00lloy}}</ref>

Growth in the US remained stable until the American Civil War in the 1860s when the primary agricultural workforce shifted from [[slavery]] to [[sharecropping]]. This, along with a change in demand, accompanied the industrialization of cigarette production as craftsman [[James Bonsack]] created a machine in 1881 to partially automate their manufacture.<ref name="Burns134-135">{{Cite book|last=Burns|first=Eric|title=The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZfqS7vi9vEC&q=The+Smoke+of+the+Gods:+A+Social+History+of+Tobacco|access-date=22 March 2009|date=28 September 2006|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1-59213-480-9|pages=134–135|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114080727/https://books.google.com/books?id=cZfqS7vi9vEC&q=The+Smoke+of+the+Gods:+A+Social+History+of+Tobacco|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Social attitudes and public health===
{{globalize section|date=March 2024}}
In 1912 and 1932 in Germany, anti-smoking groups, often associated with anti-liquor groups,<ref name="NWC178">{{Harvnb|Proctor|2000|p=178}}</ref> first published advocacy against the consumption of tobacco in the journal ''Der Tabakgegner'' (The Tobacco Opponent). In 1929, [[Fritz Lickint]] of Dresden, Germany, published a paper containing formal [[Statistics|statistical]] evidence of a lung cancer–tobacco link. During the [[Great Depression]] [[Adolf Hitler]] condemned his earlier smoking habit as a waste of money,<ref name="NWC219">{{Harvnb|Proctor|2000|p=219}}</ref> and later with stronger assertions. This movement was further strengthened with Nazi reproductive policy as women who smoked were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family.<ref name="NWC187">{{Harvnb|Proctor|2000|p=187}}</ref> In the 20th century, smoking was common. Social events like the [[smoke night]] promoted the habit.

The [[anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany]] did not reach across enemy lines during the Second World War, as anti-smoking groups quickly lost popular support. By the end of the Second World War, American cigarette manufacturers quickly reentered the German black market. Illegal smuggling of tobacco became prevalent,<ref name="NWC245">{{Harvnb|Proctor|2000|p=245}}</ref> and leaders of the Nazi anti-smoking campaign were silenced.<ref name="ADLNMPHP">{{cite journal |last1=Proctor |first1=Robert N. |title=Nazi Medicine and Public Health Policy |journal=Dimensions |year=1996 |volume=10 |issue=2 |url=http://www.adl.org/Braun/dim_14_1_nazi_med.asp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205091200/http://www.adl.org/Braun/dim_14_1_nazi_med.asp |archive-date=5 December 2012 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |via=archived copy at [[archive.is]] |access-date=1 October 2018 |url-status=live  }}</ref> As part of the [[Marshall Plan]], the United States shipped free tobacco to Germany; with 24,000 tons in 1948 and 69,000&nbsp;tons in 1949.<ref name="NWC245"/> Per capita yearly cigarette consumption in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]] steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1,523 in 1963.<ref name="NWC228">{{Harvnb|Proctor|2000|p=228}}</ref> By the end of the 20th century, anti-smoking campaigns in Germany were unable to exceed the effectiveness of the Nazi-era climax in the years 1939–41 and German tobacco health research was described by [[Robert N. Proctor]] as "muted".<ref name="NWC228"/>

[[File:Lung Cancer Incidece vers Cigarette Consumption.svg|thumb|A lengthy study conducted in order to establish the strong association necessary for legislative action (US cigarette consumption per person blue, male lung cancer rate brown)]]

In 1950, [[Richard Doll]] published research in the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' showing a close link between smoking and [[lung cancer]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Doll | first1 = R. | last2 = Hill | first2 = A. B. | title = Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4682 | pages = 739–748 | date = 1 September 1950 | pmid = 14772469 | pmc = 2038856 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739 | issn = 0007-1447 }}</ref> Beginning in December 1952, the magazine ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' published "Cancer by the Carton", a series of articles that linked [[smoking]] with [[lung cancer]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/US/9705/tobacco/history/ |title=CNN Interactive |publisher=Cnn.com |access-date=22 June 2009 |archive-date=23 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423205623/http://www.cnn.com/US/9705/tobacco/history/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1954, the [[British Doctors Study]], a prospective study of some 40 thousand doctors for about 2.5 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related.<ref name="RichardHillyBMJ1954">{{cite journal | last1 = Doll | first1 = R. | last2 = Hill | first2 = B. | title = The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits: a preliminary report: (Reprinted from Br Med J 1954:ii;1451-5) | journal = BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) | volume = 328 | issue = 7455 | pages = 1529–1533; discussion 1533 | date = Jun 2004 | pmid = 15217868 | pmc = 437141 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.328.7455.1529 | issn = 0959-8138 }}</ref> In January 1964, the United States [[Surgeon General of the United States|Surgeon General]]'s Report on Smoking and Health likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/NN/p-nid/60|title= The Reports of the Surgeon General: The 1964 Report on Smoking and Health|work= Profiles in Science|publisher= [[United States National Library of Medicine]], [[National Institutes of Health]]|access-date= 10 October 2015|archive-date= 20 January 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160120031958/http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/NN/p-nid/60|url-status= live}}</ref>

As scientific evidence mounted in the 1980s, tobacco companies claimed [[contributory negligence]] as the adverse health effects were previously unknown or lacked substantial credibility. Health authorities sided with these claims up until 1998, from which they reversed their position. The [[Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement]], originally between the four largest US tobacco companies and the attorneys general of 46 states, restricted certain types of tobacco advertisement and required payments for health compensation; which later amounted to the largest civil settlement in United States history.<ref name="WallStreetJournalTobaccoMastersSettlement">{{cite news|newspaper=[[Wall Street Journal]]|title=Forty-Six States Agree to Accept $206 Billion Tobacco Settlement|date=23 November 1998|author=Milo Geyelin}}</ref>

Social campaigns have been instituted in many places to discourage smoking, such as Canada's [[National Non-Smoking Week]].

From 1965 to 2006, rates of smoking in the United States declined from 42% to 20.8%.<ref name="RockEtAlCDC2006">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm|title=Cigarette Smoking Among Adults --- United States, 2006|access-date=1 January 2009|author=VJ Rock, MPH, A Malarcher, JW Kahende, K Asman, MSPH, C Husten, MD, R Caraballo|date=9 November 2007|publisher=United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|quote=In 2006, an estimated 20.8% (45.3&nbsp;million) of U.S. adults[...]|archive-date=16 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816014306/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of those who quit were professional, affluent men. Although the per-capita number of smokers decreased, the average number of cigarettes consumed per person per day increased from 22 in 1954 to 30 in 1978. This paradoxical event suggests that those who quit smoked less, while those who continued to smoke moved to smoke more light cigarettes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hilton|first=Matthew|title=Smoking in British Popular Culture, 1800–2000: Perfect Pleasures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjM8t6Ul73YC&q=Smoking+in+British+Popular+Culture|access-date=22 March 2009|date=4 May 2000|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-5257-6|pages=229–241|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114064553/https://books.google.com/books?id=UjM8t6Ul73YC&q=Smoking+in+British+Popular+Culture|url-status=live}}</ref> The trend has been paralleled by many industrialized nations as rates have either leveled-off or declined. In the [[developing world]], however, tobacco consumption continued to rise at 3.4% in 2002.<ref name="WHO2002FactSheet">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20020528.htm|title=WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics|access-date=1 January 2009|date=28 May 2002|publisher=World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108181404/http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20020528.htm|archive-date=8 November 2009}}</ref> In Africa, smoking is in most areas considered to be modern, and many of the strong adverse opinions that prevail in the West receive much less attention.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilman|Xun|2004|pp=46–57}}</ref> In 2008, [[Russia]] (70.2%), [[Indonesia]] (65.3%), [[Belarus]] (63.6%), [[Ukraine]] (63.3%), [[Laos]] (62.5%), [[Greece]] (62.4%), [[Jordan]] (61.7%), [[Tonga]] (61.1%), [[China]] (60.8%), and [[North Korea]] (59.5%) were ranked the first by adjusted prevalence estimate of the percent of male population smoking tobacco.<ref name="MPOWER 2008 pp=267–288">{{harvnb|MPOWER|2008|pp=267–288}}</ref>