Editing Tin (section)

==Characteristics==
===Physical===
[[File:Tin-2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Drop (liquid)|Droplet]] of solidified molten tin]]
Tin is a soft, [[malleable]], [[ductile]] and highly [[crystal]]line silvery-white [[metal]]. When a bar of tin is bent a crackling sound known as the "[[tin cry]]" can be heard from the [[Crystal twinning|twinning]] of the crystals.<ref name="Hol1985"/> This trait is shared by [[indium]], [[cadmium]], [[zinc]], and [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in its solid state. Tin melts at about {{convert|232|C|F}}, the lowest in group&nbsp;14, and boils at {{convert|2602|C|F}}, the second lowest (ahead of [[lead]]) in its group. The melting point is further lowered to {{convert|177.3|C|F}} for 11&nbsp;nm particles.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-04-ink-tin-nanoparticles-future-circuit.html |title=Ink with tin nanoparticles could print future circuit boards |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916090032/http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-04-ink-tin-nanoparticles-future-circuit.html |archive-date=2011-09-16 |df=dmy-all |work=Phys.org |date=April 12, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/0957-4484/22/22/225701 |title=Synthesis and characterization of low temperature Sn nanoparticles for the fabrication of highly conductive ink |year=2011 |last1=Jo |first1=Yun Hwan |last2=Jung |first2=Inyu |last3=Choi |first3=Chung Seok|last4=Kim |first4=Inyoung |last5=Lee |first5=Hyuck Mo |journal=Nanotechnology |volume=22 |issue=22 |page=225701 |pmid=21454937 |bibcode=2011Nanot..22v5701J |s2cid=25202674 }}</ref>

{{external media|width=220px |float=left |video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXB83Heh3_c β–α transition of tin] at −40&nbsp;°C (time lapse; one second of the video is one hour in real time)}}
β-tin, also called ''white tin'', is the [[allotrope]] (structural form) of elemental tin that is stable at and above room temperature. It is metallic and malleable, and has [[Tetragonal crystal system|body-centered tetragonal]] crystal structure. α-tin, or ''gray tin'', is the nonmetallic form. It is stable below {{convert|13.2|C|F}} and is [[brittle]]. α-tin has a [[diamond cubic]] crystal structure, as do [[diamond]] and [[silicon]]. α-tin does not have [[metal]]lic properties because its atoms form a [[covalent]] structure in which electrons cannot move freely. α-tin is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than specialized [[semiconductor]] applications.<ref name="Hol1985" /> γ-tin and σ-tin exist at temperatures above {{convert|161|C|F}}&nbsp; and pressures above several [[Pascal (unit)|GPa]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=A.M. |last1=Molodets |last2=Nabatov |first2=S.S. |title=Thermodynamic potentials, diagram of state, and phase transitions of tin on shock compression |journal=High Temperature |volume=38 |issue=5 |year=2000 |pages=715–721 |doi=10.1007/BF02755923|bibcode=2000HTemp..38..715M |s2cid=120417927 }}</ref>

In cold conditions β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as "[[tin pest]]" or "tin disease".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tin Pests {{!}} Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering |url=https://calce.umd.edu/tin-pests |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=calce.umd.edu}}</ref> Some unverifiable sources also say that, during [[Napoleon]]'s Russian campaign of 1812, the temperatures became so cold that the tin buttons on the soldiers' uniforms disintegrated over time, contributing to the defeat of the [[Grande Armée]],<ref>{{cite book |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=YC4Sm5eL4fsC}}|last1=Le&nbsp;Coureur |first1=Penny |last2=Burreson |first2=Jay |title=Napoleon's Buttons: 17&nbsp;molecules that changed history |place=New York |publisher=Penguin Group, USA |date=2004}}</ref> a persistent legend.<ref>{{cite book| last=Öhrström |first=Lars |title=The Last Alchemist in Paris |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-966109-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsc.li/CW_140501 |url-status=dead |title=Book review: The last alchemist in Pari|date=2014-04-29 |first=Simon |last=Cotton |work= [[Chemistry World]] |publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810123922/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/04/last-alchemist-paris-lars-ohrstrom |archive-date=2014-08-10 |df=dmy-all |access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |date=1 October 2011 |orig-year=2001 |title=Nature's Building Blocks: an A-Z Guide to the Elements |edition=New |location=New York, United States |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=552 |isbn=978-0-19-960563-7 |author-link=John Emsley |quote=Only officers had metal buttons, and those were made of brass.}}</ref>

The α-β transformation temperature is {{convert|13.2|C|F}}, but impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower it well below {{convert|0|C|F}}. With the addition of [[antimony]] or [[bismuth]] the transformation might not occur at all, increasing durability.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book |first=Mel |last=Schwartz |title=Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes |edition=2nd |chapter=Tin and alloys, properties |publisher=CRC Press |year=2002 |isbn= 978-1-56676-661-6}}</ref>

Commercial grades of tin (99.8% tin content) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver increase the hardness of tin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tin Alloys – Characteristics and Uses |url=https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/metals-what-are-metals/alloys-composition-properties-of-metal-alloys/tin-alloys/ |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=Nuclear Power}}</ref> Tin easily forms hard, brittle intermetallic phases that are typically undesirable. It does not mix into a solution with most metals and elements so tin does not have much solid solubility. Tin mixes well with [[bismuth]], [[gallium]], [[lead]], [[thallium]] and [[zinc]], forming simple [[Eutectic point|eutectic]] systems.<ref name="Schwartz" />

Tin becomes a [[superconductor]] below 3.72&nbsp;[[kelvin|K]]<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1016/S0031-8914(35)90114-8|title = The electrical resistance of cadmium, thallium and tin at low temperatures|date = 1935|last1 = Dehaas|first1 = W.|last2 = Deboer|first2 = J.|last3 = Vandenberg|first3 = G.|journal = Physica|volume = 2|issue = 1–12|page = 453|bibcode=1935Phy.....2..453D}}</ref> and was one of the first superconductors to be studied.<ref name="meissner1">{{cite journal
|volume = 21
|issue = 44
|pages = 787–788
|last = Meissner
|first = W.
|author2=R. Ochsenfeld
|title = Ein neuer effekt bei eintritt der Supraleitfähigkeit
|journal = Naturwissenschaften
|date = 1933
|doi = 10.1007/BF01504252
|bibcode=1933NW.....21..787M
|s2cid = 37842752
}}</ref> The [[Meissner effect]], one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals.<ref name="meissner1" />

===Chemical===
Tin resists corrosion from [[water]], but can be corroded by [[acid]]s and [[alkali]]s. Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals.<ref name="Hol1985" /> When heated in air it oxidizes slowly to form a thin [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation layer]] of [[stannic oxide]] ({{chem2|SnO2}}) that inhibits further oxidation.<ref>{{cite book| url = {{google books |plainurl=y |id=KXwgAZJBWb0C&pg=RA1-PT126}}| page = 126| title = Handbook of corrosion data| isbn = 978-0-87170-518-1| last1 = Craig| first1 = Bruce D.| last2 = Anderson| first2 = David S.| last3 = International| first3 = A. S. M.| date = January 1995| publisher = ASM International| url-status = live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160511021856/https://books.google.com/books?id=KXwgAZJBWb0C&pg=RA1-PT126| archive-date = 2016-05-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Crutchlow |first=Charlotte |date=2021-06-25 |title=Tin-Formation About the Element Tin {{!}} Periodic Table |url=https://chemistrytalk.org/tin-element/ |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=ChemTalk }}</ref>

===Isotopes===
{{Main|Isotopes of tin}}
Tin has ten [[stable isotopes]], the [[List of elements by stability of isotopes|greatest number]] of any element. Their mass numbers are 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, and 124. Tin-120 makes up almost a third of all tin. Tin-118 and tin-116 are also common. Tin-115 is the least common stable isotope.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tin {{!}} NIDC: National Isotope Development Center |url=https://www.isotopes.gov/products/tin |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=www.isotopes.gov}}</ref> The isotopes with even [[mass number]]s have no [[nuclear spin]], while those with odd mass numbers have a nuclear spin of 1/2. It is thought that tin has such a great multitude of stable isotopes because of tin's [[atomic number]] being 50, which is a "[[Magic number (physics)|magic number]]" in nuclear physics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Testing the Possible Doubly Magic Nature of Tin-100, Researchers Study the Electromagnetic Properties of Indium Isotopes |url=https://www.energy.gov/science/np/articles/testing-possible-doubly-magic-nature-tin-100-researchers-study-electromagnetic |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=Energy.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=X. F. |last2=Wang |first2=S. J. |last3=Wilkins |first3=S. G. |last4=Ruiz |first4=R. F. Garcia |date=2023-03-01 |title=Laser spectroscopy for the study of exotic nuclei |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0146641022000631 |journal=Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics |volume=129 |pages=104005 |doi=10.1016/j.ppnp.2022.104005 |issn=0146-6410|arxiv=2209.15228 }}</ref>

Tin is one of the easiest elements to detect and analyze by [[NMR spectroscopy]], which relies on molecular weight and its [[chemical shift]]s are referenced against [[tetramethyltin]] ({{chem|SnMe|4}}).{{efn|Only hydrogen, fluorine, phosphorus, thallium and xenon are easier to use NMR analysis with for samples containing isotopes at their natural abundance.}}<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nyu.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/aj39/NMRmap.cgi| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604130629/http://www.nyu.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/aj39/NMRmap.cgi| archive-date = 2011-06-04| title = Interactive NMR Frequency Map| access-date = 2009-05-05| url-status = dead}}</ref>

Of the stable isotopes, tin-115 has a high [[neutron capture cross section]] for fast neutrons, at 30 [[Barn (unit)|barn]]s. Tin-117 has a cross section of 2.3 barns, one order of magnitude smaller, while tin-119 has a slightly smaller cross section of 2.2 barns.<ref name="crosssections">{{Cite journal |last=Sears |first=Varley F. |date=January 1992 |title=Neutron scattering lengths and cross sections |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10448639208218770 |journal=Neutron News |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=26–37 |doi=10.1080/10448639208218770 |issn=1044-8632}} Table of cross sections available at NIST: [https://www.ncnr.nist.gov/resources/n-lengths/elements/sn.html Neutron Scattering Lengths and cross sections].</ref> Before these cross sections were well known, it was proposed to use [[solder#Lead-based|tin-lead solder]] as a [[nuclear reactor coolant|coolant]] for [[fast-neutron reactor|fast reactors]] because of its low melting point. Current studies are for lead or [[lead-bismuth eutectic|lead-bismuth]] reactor coolants because both heavy metals are nearly transparent to fast neutrons, with very low capture cross sections.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.westinghousenuclear.com/energy-systems/lead-cooled-fast-reactor | title=Westinghouse Nuclear > Energy Systems > Lead-cooled Fast Reactor }}</ref> In order to use a tin or tin-lead coolant, the tin would first have to go through isotopic separation to remove the isotopes with [[even and odd atomic nuclei|odd]] mass number. Combined, these three isotopes make up about 17% of natural tin but represent nearly all of the capture cross section. Of the remaining seven isotopes tin-112 has a capture cross section of 1 barn. The other six isotopes forming 82.7% of natural tin have capture cross sections of 0.3 barns or less, making them effectively transparent to neutrons.<ref name="crosssections" />

Tin has 33 unstable isotopes, ranging in mass number from 98 to 140<!--32 as per [[Isotopes of tin]]; also the inclusive range [98,140] contains 43 integers.-->. The unstable tin isotopes have half-lives of less than a year except for [[tin-126]], which has a [[half-life]] of about 230,000 years. 
Tin-100 and tin-132 are two of the very few [[nuclide]]s with a "[[Double magic|doubly magic]]" nucleus which despite being unstable, as they have very uneven [[neutron–proton ratio]]s, are the endpoints beyond which tin isotopes lighter than tin-100 and heavier than tin-132 are much less stable.<ref>{{cite journal|first = Phil|last = Walker|title = Doubly Magic Discovery of Tin-100|journal = Physics World|volume = 7|issue = June|date = 1994|pages = 28|doi = 10.1088/2058-7058/7/6/24}}</ref> Another 30 [[metastable isomers]] have been identified for tin isotopes between 111 and 131, the most stable being tin-121m, with a half-life of 43.9 years.<ref name="Audi">{{NUBASE 2003}}</ref>

The relative differences in the abundances of tin's stable isotopes can be explained by how they are formed during [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. Tin-116 through tin-120, along with tin-122, are formed in the [[s-process|''s''-process]] (slow neutron capture) in most [[star]]s which leads to them being the most common tin isotopes, while tin-124 is only formed in the [[r-process|''r''-process]] (rapid neutron capture) in [[supernovae]] and [[neutron star merger]]s. Tin isotopes 115, 117 through 120, and 122 are produced via both the ''s''-process and the ''r''-process,<ref name=Bragagni23>{{cite journal |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=344 |date=2023 |pages=40–58 |title=Mass-independent Sn isotope fractionation and radiogenic 115Sn in chondrites and terrestrial rocks |first1=Alessandro |last1=Bragagni |first2=Frank |last2=Wombacher |first3=Maria |last3=Kirchenbaur |first4=Ninja |last4=Braukmüller |first5=Carsten |last5=Münker |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2023.01.014|doi-access=free }}</ref> The two lightest stable isotopes, tin-112 and tin-114, cannot be made in significant amounts in the ''s''- or ''r''-processes and are among the [[p-nuclei]] whose origins are not well understood. Some theories about their formation include [[proton capture]] and [[photodisintegration]]. Tin-115 might be partially produced in the ''s''-process, both directly and as the daughter of long-lived [[isotopes of indium|indium-115]], and also from the decay of indium-115 produced via the ''r''-process.<ref name=Bragagni23/><ref name="Cameron">{{cite journal|last1 = Cameron|first1 = A. G. W.|year = 1973|title = Abundance of the Elements in the Solar System|url = http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1973/1973_Cameron_1.pdf|journal = Space Science Reviews|volume = 15|issue = 1|pages = 121–146|doi = 10.1007/BF00172440|bibcode = 1973SSRv...15..121C|s2cid = 120201972|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021030549/http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1973/1973_Cameron_1.pdf|archive-date = 2011-10-21}}</ref>