Editing Theravada (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Theravāda Buddhism}}

===Pre-modern===
[[File:Thuparamaya Stupa and Stone Pillars.jpg|thumb|240px|The [[Thuparamaya]] Stupa, the earliest [[stupa]] after Theravada Buddhism became the official religion in [[Sri Lanka]], dating back to the reign of King [[Devanampiya Tissa]] (247–207 BCE)]]
[[File:Ruwanweli Saya 1.jpg|thumb|240px|The [[Ruwanwelisaya]] stupa, built by the Sri Lankan [[Dutugamunu|King Dutugemunu]] (c. 140 BCE)]]
The Theravāda school descends from the [[Vibhajyavāda|Vibhajjavāda]], a division within the [[Sthavira nikāya|Sthāvira nikāya]], one of the two major orders that arose after the [[Second Buddhist council|first schism]] in the Indian Buddhist community.<ref>Skilton, Andrew (2004). ''A Concise History of Buddhism''. pp. 49, 64.</ref><ref name="Cousins2001">Cousins, Lance (2001). ''"[https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/BSR/article/view/8772/6247 On the Vibhajjavādins"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411104058/https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/BSR/article/view/8772/6247 |date=11 April 2019 }}'', Buddhist Studies Review 18 (2), 131–182.</ref> Theravāda sources trace their tradition to the Third Buddhist council when elder [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] is said to have compiled the ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', an important work which lays out the Vibhajjavāda doctrinal position.<ref name="Berkwitz2012">Berkwitz, Stephen C. (2012). ''South Asian Buddhism: A Survey'', Routledge, pp. 44-45.</ref>

Aided by the patronage of Mauryan kings like [[Ashoka]], this school spread throughout India and reached [[Sri Lanka]] through the efforts of missionary monks like [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]]. In Sri Lanka, it became known as the [[Tamrashatiya|Tambapaṇṇiya (and later as Mahāvihāravāsins)]] which was based at the [[Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya|Great Vihara (Mahavihara)]] in [[Anuradhapura]] (the ancient Sri Lankan capital).<ref name=":0" /> According to Theravāda sources, another one of the Ashokan missions was also sent to [[Suvarnabhumi|''Suvaṇṇabhūmi'']] ("The Golden Land"), which may refer to Southeast Asia.<ref>''Mahavamsa: The great chronicle of Ceylon'' tr. [[Wilhelm Geiger]]. Pali Text Society, 1912, pp. 82, 86.</ref>

By the first century BCE, Theravāda Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Kingdom of Anuradhapura]].<ref>De Silva, K. M. (2005), pp. 9-12.</ref> The Pali Canon, which contains the main scriptures of the Theravāda, was committed to writing in the first century BCE.<ref>Gombrich, Richard (2006), ''Theravada Buddhism, a social history from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'', p. 152. Routledge.</ref> Throughout the history of ancient and medieval Sri Lanka, Theravāda was the main religion of the [[Sinhalese people]] and its temples and monasteries were patronized by the [[List of Sri Lankan monarchs|Sri Lankan kings]], who saw themselves as the protectors of the religion.<ref>Bandaranayake, S.D. ''Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Viháras of Anurádhapura'', p. 25.</ref>

[[File:TipitakaGoldPlates.jpg|thumb|240px|Gold Plates containing fragments of the Pali Tipitaka (5th century) found in Maunggan (a village near the city of [[Sri Ksetra Kingdom|Sriksetra]])]]
[[File:Old_Bagan,_Myanmar,_Bagan_plains_at_sunset.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Bagan]], the capital of the [[Bagan Kingdom]]. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, more than 10,000 temples, [[pagoda]]s and monasteries were constructed in the Bagan plains.<ref>Stadtner, Donald M. (2011). ''Sacred Sites of Burma: Myth and Folklore in an Evolving Spiritual Realm,'' p. 216. Bangkok: 2011. {{ISBN|978-974-9863-60-2}}.</ref>]]
Over time, two other sects split off from the Mahāvihāra tradition, the [[Abhayagiri vihāra|Abhayagiri]] and [[Jetavanaramaya|Jetavana]].<ref name="Warder, A.K. 2000. p. 280">Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. p. 280.</ref> While the Abhayagiri sect became known for the [[Syncretism|syncretic]] study of [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]] texts, as well as the Theravāda canon, the Mahāvihāra tradition did not accept these new scriptures.<ref>Hirakawa, Akira; Groner, Paul (translator) (2007). ''A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna''. pp. 121-124.</ref> Instead, Mahāvihāra scholars like [[Buddhaghosa]] focused on the exegesis of the Pali scriptures and on the [[Abhidharma|Abhidhamma]]. These Theravāda sub-sects often came into conflict with each other over royal patronage.<ref>De Silva, K. M. (2005), p. 63.</ref> The reign of [[Parakramabahu I|Parākramabāhu I]] (1153–1186) saw an extensive reform of the Sri Lankan sangha after years of warfare on the island. Parākramabāhu created a single unified sangha which came to be dominated by the Mahāvihāra sect.<ref>De Silva, K. M. (1981), p. 73.</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Hirakawa|first1=Akira|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjjwjC7rcOYC|title=A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna|last2=Groner|first2=Paul|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1993|isbn=978-81-208-0955-0|page=126}}</ref>

Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravāda Buddhism became a dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms of [[Sri Ksetra Kingdom|Sri Ksetra]] and [[Dvaravati]] from about the 5th century CE onwards.<ref>Skilling, Peter. ''The Advent of Theravada Buddhism to Mainland South-east Asia'', Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Volume 20, Number 1, Summer 1997.</ref> The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language are gold plates found at Sri Ksetra dated circa the 5th to 6th century.<ref>{{Citation|author=Professor Janice Stargardt|title=Historical Geography of Burma: Creation of enduring patterns in the Pyu period|url=http://iias.asia/iiasn/25/theme/25T6.html|publisher=IIAS Newsletter Online, No 25, Theme Burmese Heritage|access-date=13 September 2024|archive-date=8 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408120847/http://iias.asia/iiasn/25/theme/25T6.html|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Before the Theravāda tradition became the dominant religion in Southeast Asia, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana and Hinduism were also prominent.<ref>Frasch, Tilman. "''The Theravaada Buddhist Ecumene in the Fifteenth Century: Intellectual Foundations and Material Representations"'' in Buddhism Across Asia, Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, Volume 1 – Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (2014), p. 347.</ref><ref name="Sujato, Bhikkhu 2006. p. 72">{{citation|last=Sujato|first=Bhante|title=Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools|page=72|year=2012|publisher=Santipada|isbn=978-1921842085|author-link=Bhante Sujato}}</ref>

Starting at around the 11th century, Sinhalese Theravāda monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the Theravādin [[Mahaviharavasin|Mahavihara]] school.<ref>Gombrich (2006), p. 3.</ref> The patronage of monarchs such as the Burmese king [[Anawrahta]] (Pali: Aniruddha, 1044–1077) and the Thai king [[Ram Khamhaeng]] ([[floruit]]. late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravāda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand.<ref>Lieberman, Victor B (2003). ''Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Volume 1: Integration on the Mainland.'' Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–116. {{ISBN|978-0-521-80496-7}}.</ref><ref>Patit Paban Mishra (2010). ''The History of Thailand,'' p. 37-38. Greenwood History of Modern Nations Series.</ref><ref name=":13">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 60. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>

Burmese and Thai kings saw themselves as [[Buddhist kingship|Dhamma Kings]] and as protectors of the Theravāda faith. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices.<ref name="geh-172-173">Harvey (1925), pp. 172–173.</ref><ref>Leider, Jacques P. ''Text, Lineage and Tradition in Burma. The Struggle for Norms and Religious Legitimacy Under King Bodawphaya (1782-1819).'' The Journal of Burma Studies Volume 9, 2004, pp. 95-99.</ref><ref>Jermsawatdi, Promsak (1979). ''Thai Art with Indian Influences,'' p. 33. Abhinav Publications.</ref> During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda also became established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. In Cambodia, numerous Hindu and Mahāyāna temples, most famously [[Angkor Wat]] and [[Angkor Thom]], were transformed into Theravādin monasteries.<ref>Evans, Grant (2002). ''A Short History of Laos: The Land in Between,'' pp. 15-16. Allen & Unwin.</ref><ref>Harris, Ian (2008). ''Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice,'' pp. 35-36. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>

===Modern history===
[[File:Buddhism-meditation-burma.jpg|thumb|240px|A Burmese man meditates in [[Myanmar]]. The widespread practice of meditation by laypersons is a modern development in Theravāda.]]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called "[[Buddhist modernism]]".<ref>David L. McMahan (2008). ''The Making of Buddhist Modernism.'' Oxford University Press. pp. 5–7, 32–33, 43–52. {{ISBN|978-0-19-988478-0}}.</ref> In the British colonies of [[British Ceylon|Ceylon]] (modern Sri Lanka) and [[British rule in Burma|Burma]] (Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools).<ref>Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, ''Buddhism Betrayed?'' The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 35–36.</ref> In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide a Buddhist education.<ref>Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, ''Buddhism Betrayed?'' The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 63–64.</ref> [[Anagarika Dhammapala]], [[Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera]], [[Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]] (one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival.<ref>Kemper, Steven (2015) ''Rescued from the Nation: Anagarika Dharmapala and the Buddhist World'', p. 6. University of Chicago Press.</ref> Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the [[Amarapura Nikāya]] and the [[Rāmañña Nikāya]].<ref>De Silva, K. M. (1981), p. 341.</ref>

In Burma, an influential modernist figure was king [[Mindon Min]] (1808–1878), known for his patronage of the [[Fifth Buddhist council]] (1871) and the [[Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda]] (still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the "[[Vipassana movement]]", which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation and [[Pariyatti|doctrinal learning]]. [[Ledi Sayadaw]] (1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement.<ref name="insight">{{Citation |last=Braun |first=Erik |title=The Many Lives of Insight: The Abhidhamma and transformations in Theravada meditation |url=https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/the-many-lives-of-insight/ |access-date=1 April 2023 |publisher=[[Harvard Divinity School]]}}</ref> After independence, Myanmar held the [[Sixth Buddhist council]] ([[Vesak]] 1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of the [[Pāli Canon]], which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era include [[U Nārada|U Narada]], [[Mahasi Sayadaw]], [[U Pandita|Sayadaw U Pandita]], [[Nyanaponika Thera]], [[Webu Sayadaw]], [[Sayagyi U Ba Khin|U Ba Khin]] and his student [[S. N. Goenka|S.N. Goenka.]]

Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout the colonial era), the religion became much more centralized, [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratized]] and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the [[Chakri dynasty]]. King [[Mongkut]] (r. 1851–1868) and his successor [[Chulalongkorn]] (1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the [[Sangha Supreme Council|Sangha Council of Elders]] ([[Pali language|Pali]]: ''Mahāthera Samāgama''), the highest body of the Thai sangha.<ref name=":14">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 69. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, the [[Dhammayuttika Nikaya|Dhammayuttika]] Nikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening).<ref name=":8">Patit Paban Mishra (2010). ''The History of Thailand,'' p. 77. Greenwood History of Modern Nations Series.</ref><ref>Jermsawatdi, Promsak (1979). ''Thai Art with Indian Influences,'' pp. 38-39. Abhinav Publications.</ref> The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational.<ref name=":18">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 156. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> Under the leadership of Prince [[Vajirananavarorasa|Wachirayan Warorot]], a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks.<ref name=":15">Yoneo Ishii (1986). ''Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History'', p. 76. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>
[[File:AjahnChahSangha.jpg|thumb|240px|Thai Forest teacher [[Ajahn Chah]] with [[Ajahn Sumedho]] (front right), [[Ajahn Pasanno]] (rear and left of Sumedho) and other monastics (1980)]]
The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are the [[Sri Lankan Forest Tradition]] and the [[Thai Forest Tradition]], founded by [[Ajahn Mun]] (1870–1949) and his students.<ref>Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1984). ''The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets,'' pp. 84-88. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-27787-7}}.</ref>

Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in the modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Under [[French protectorate of Cambodia|French Rule]], French indologists of the [[French School of the Far East|École française d'Extrême-Orient]] became involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914''.''<ref>Ladwig, Patrice (2017). ''Contemporary Lao Buddhism. Ruptured histories''. In: Jerryson, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Contemporary Buddhism, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 274-296.</ref> While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after the end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile.<ref name="Harris 2001 p=75">Harris, Ian (August 2001), ''"Sangha Groupings in Cambodia",'' Buddhist Studies Review, UK Association for Buddhist Studies, 18 (I): 73–106.</ref> In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the [[Pathet Lao]] sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control.<ref>Morev, L. (1998). ''"Religion, state and society in contemporary Laos"'' in "Religion, State and Society" 26:1, pp. 31–38.</ref> During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study.
[[File:Global_Pagoda,Gorai,Meera_Rd-Bhayandar_-_panoramio_(4).jpg|thumb|240x240px|[[Global Vipassana Pagoda]], Maharashtra, India. S.N. Goenka laid the foundation for the structure in 2000 and the pagoda opened in 2009. Regular meditation courses are held at the complex.]]
The modern era also saw the spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include:

*The 20th-century Nepalese Theravāda movement which introduced Theravāda Buddhism to [[Nepal]] and was led by prominent figures such as [[Dharmaditya Dharmacharya]], [[Bauddha Rishi Mahapragya|Mahapragya]], [[Pragyananda Mahasthavir|Pragyananda]] and [[Dhammalok Mahasthavir]].<ref>LeVine, Sarah; Gellner, David N. (2009). ''Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal,'' pp. 37, 48, 50. Harvard University Press.</ref>
*The establishment of some of the first Theravāda Viharas in the Western world, such as the [[London Buddhist Vihara]] (1926), [[Das Buddhistische Haus]] in Berlin (1957) and the Washington Buddhist Vihara in Washington, DC (1965).
*The founding of the [[Bengal Buddhist Association]] (1892) and the Dharmankur Vihar (1900) in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] by the Bengali monk [[Kripasaran]] Mahasthavir, which were key events in the Bengali Theravāda revival.<ref>Ven. BD Dipananda (2013). ''[https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-revival-of-buddhism-in-indo-bangla-territory-a-new-perspective The Revival of Buddhism in Indo-Bangla Territory: A New Perspective.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117193734/https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-revival-of-buddhism-in-indo-bangla-territory-a-new-perspective |date=17 January 2021 }}'' Buddhistdoor International.</ref>
*The founding of the [[Maha Bodhi Society]] in 1891 by [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] which focused on the conservation and restoration of important Indian Buddhist sites, such as [[Bodh Gaya]] and [[Sarnath]].<ref name="Jerryson, Michael K. p. 41">Jerryson, Michael K. (ed.) ''The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism'', p. 41.</ref><ref name="Ahir">{{Citation |last=Ahir|first=D.C.|title=Buddhism in Modern India|publisher=Satguru|year=1991|isbn=81-7030-254-4}}</ref> 
*The introduction of Theravāda to other Southeast Asian nations like Singapore, [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]]. Especially with Ven. [[K. Sri Dhammananda]] missionary efforts among English-speaking Chinese communities. In addition, the establishment of the [[Indonesian Theravāda Saṅgha]] in 1976 and the [[Theravada Buddhist Council of Malaysia|Theravāda Buddhist Council of Malaysia]] in 2012 also signaled the revival of Theravāda in both countries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wowor|first=Cornelis|title=Awal Sangha Theravada Indonesia|url=https://samaggi-phala.or.id/sangha-theravada-indonesia/sekilas-sti/awal-sangha-theravada-indonesia-2/|website=Samaggi Phala|access-date=2024-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=TBCM|url=https://www.tbcm.org.my/about-tbcm|website=Theravada Buddhist Council of Malaysia|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-09-13}}</ref>
*The return of Western Theravādin monks trained in the Thai Forest Tradition to western countries and the subsequent founding of monasteries led by western monastics, such as [[Abhayagiri Buddhist Monastery]], [[Chithurst Buddhist Monastery]], [[Metta Forest Monastery]], [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]], [[Birken Forest Buddhist Monastery]], [[Bodhinyana Monastery]] and [[Santacittarama]].
*The spread of the [[Vipassana movement]] around the world by the efforts of people like [[Mother Sayamagyi]], [[S. N. Goenka|S.N. Goenka]], [[Anagarika Munindra]], [[Joseph Goldstein (writer)|Joseph Goldstein]], [[Jack Kornfield]], [[Sharon Salzberg]], [[Dipa Ma]], and [[Ruth Denison]].
*The Vietnamese Theravāda movement, led by figures such as Ven. Hộ-Tông (Vansarakkhita).<ref>Huynh Kim Lan (2015). ''[http://dr.lib.sjp.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1678?show=full Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924142729/http://dr.lib.sjp.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1678?show=full |date=24 September 2021 }}'' Proceedings of 10th National Conference on Buddhist Studies of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, [[University of Sri Jayewardenepura]], Nugegoda, 73.</ref>