Editing Theodore Beza (section)

==Biography==

===Early life===
[[File:Vézelay-Maison natale de Théodore de Bèze.jpg|thumb|left|Theodore Beza's birthplace in Vézelay]]
Theodore Beza was born on 24 June 1519 in [[Vézelay]], in the province of [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]], France.<ref name=HDS>{{HDS|11048|author=Nicollier, Béatrice|date=30 September 2004}}</ref> His father, Pierre de Bèze, [[bailiff]] of Vézelay,<ref name=HDS/> descended from a Burgundian noble family; his mother, Marie Bourdelot, was known for her generosity.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Beza's father had two brothers; Nicolas, who was member of the [[Parlement of Paris|{{lang|fr|cat=no|parlement}} of Paris]], and Claude, who was [[abbot]] of the [[Cistercian]] [[monastery]] of Froimont in the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Beauvais|diocese of Beauvais]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Nicolas, who was unmarried, during a visit to Vézelay was so pleased with Theodore that, with the permission of his parents, he took him to Paris to educate him there.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} 

From Paris, Theodore was sent to [[Orléans]] in December 1528 to receive instruction from the famous German [[humanist]] {{ill|Melchior Wolmar|de|Melchior Wolmar}}.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He was received into Wolmar's house, and the day on which this took place was afterward celebrated as a second birthday.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Beza soon followed his teacher to [[Bourges]], where the latter was called by Duchess [[Marguerite de Navarre|Margaret of Angoulême]], sister of King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} At the time, Bourges was the focus of the Reformation movement in France.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In 1534, after Francis I issued his edict against ecclesiastical innovations, Wolmar returned to Germany.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Beza, in accordance with the wish of his father, went back to Orléans and studied law from 1535 to 1539.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The pursuit of law had little attraction for him; he enjoyed more the reading of the ancient classics, especially [[Ovid]], [[Catullus]], and [[Tibullus]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

He received a [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate]] in law on 11 August 1539, and, as his father desired, went to Paris, where he began to practice.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} To support him, his relatives had obtained for him two benefices, the proceeds of which amounted to 700 golden crowns a year; and his uncle had promised to make him his successor.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Beza spent two years in Paris and gained a prominent position in literary circles.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} To escape the many temptations to which he was exposed, with the knowledge of two friends, he became engaged in the year 1544 to a young girl of humble descent, Claudine Denosse, promising to publicly marry her as soon as his circumstances would allow it.

[[File:Théodore de Bèze - musée de la Réformation.jpg|thumb|Beza at age 24, 16th-century portrait]]

In 1548, Beza published a collection of [[Latin language|Latin]] [[poetry]], {{lang|la|Juvenilia}}, which made him famous, and he was considered one of the best writers of Latin poetry of his time.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} But his work attracted unexpected criticism; as [[Philip Schaff]] says, "Prurient minds&nbsp;... read between his lines what he never intended to put there, and imagined offences of which he was not guilty even in thought".<ref>''History of the Christian Church'' [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.xix.i.html vol. viii, sec. 167]</ref> Shortly after the publication of his book, Beza fell ill with [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and his illness, it is reported, revealed to him his spiritual needs.<ref name=HDS/>{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Following his recovery, Beza adhered to the Reformed faith, a decision which resulted in a condemnation from the {{lang|fr|parlement}} of Paris, the loss of part of his property and the need to leave France.<ref name=HDS/> He then resolved to sever his connections of the time, and went to the [[Republic of Geneva]], a place of refuge for adherents of the Reformation, where he arrived with Claudine on 23 October 1548.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

===Teacher at Lausanne===
Theodore Beza was received in Geneva by [[John Calvin]], who had met him already in Wolmar's house, and was at once married to Claudine.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Beza was at a loss for immediate occupation so he went to Tübingen to see his former teacher Wolmar.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} On his way home, he visited [[Pierre Viret]] at [[Lausanne]], who brought about his appointment as professor of Greek at the [[Academy of Lausanne]] in November 1549.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Beza served as rector of the academy from 1552 to 1554.<ref name=HDS/>

Beza found time to write a Biblical drama, ''Abraham Sacrifiant'',<ref>{{cite book |first=Theodore |last=Beza |orig-date=1st Latin pub. Geneva 1550; English tr. 1577 |translator-first=Arthur |translator-last=Golding |translator-link=Arthur Golding |publisher=M. W. Wallace |location=Toronto |year=1906}}</ref> in which he contrasted [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] with [[Protestantism]], and the work was well received.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The text of some verses includes directions for musical performance, but no music survives.<ref name="Grove">{{Cite Grove |last=Gaillard |first=Paul-André |last2=Freedman |first2=Richard |title=Bèze, Théodore de|name-list-style=amp}}</ref>

In 1551, Beza was asked by Calvin to complete the French metrical translations of the Psalms begun by [[Clément Marot]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Thirty-four of his translations were published in the 1551 edition of the [[Genevan Psalter]], and six more were added to later editions.<ref name="Grove" /> About the same time he published ''Passavantius'',<ref>[https://archive.org/details/lepassavantdeth00bzuoft ''Le Passavant''].</ref> a satire directed against [[Pierre Lizet]], the former president of the [[Parlement of Paris]], and principal originator of the "fiery chamber" ({{lang|fr|chambre ardente}}), who, at the time (1551), was abbot of St. Victor near Paris and publishing a number of polemical writings.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

Of a more serious character were two controversies in which Beza was involved at this time.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The first concerned the doctrine of [[predestination]] and the controversy of Calvin with [[Jerome Hermes Bolsec]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The second referred to the execution of [[Michael Servetus]] at Geneva on 27 October 1553.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In defense of Calvin and the Genevan magistrates, Beza published, in 1554, the work {{lang|la|De haereticis a civili magistratu puniendis}} (translated into French in 1560).{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

===Journeys on behalf of the Protestants===
[[File:Portrait of Theodore Beza (1519–1605), by English School, 17th century.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of Theodore Beza, by English School, 17th century]]
In 1557, Beza took a special interest in the [[Waldensians]] of [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], [[Italy]], who were being harassed by the French government.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} On their behalf, he went with [[William Farel]] to [[Bern]], [[Zürich]], [[Basel]], and [[Schaffhausen]], then to [[Strasbourg|Strasburg]], [[Mömpelgard]], [[Baden]], and [[Göppingen]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In Baden and Göppingen, Beza and Farel made a declaration concerning the Waldensians' views on the sacrament on 14 May 1557. The written declaration clearly stated their position and was well received by the Lutheran theologians, but was strongly disapproved of in Bern and Zurich.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

In the autumn of 1558, Beza undertook a second journey with Farel to [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] by way of Strasburg in the hopes of bringing about an intercession by the Evangelical princes of the empire in favor of the persecuted brethren at Paris.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} With [[Melanchthon]] and other theologians then assembled at the [[Colloquy of Worms (1557)|Colloquy of Worms]], Beza proposed a union of all Protestant Christians, but the proposal was decidedly denied by Zurich and Bern.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

False reports reached the German princes that the hostilities against the [[Huguenots]] in France had ceased and no embassy was sent to the court of France.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} As a result, Beza undertook another journey with Farel, [[Johannes Buddaeus]], and Gaspard Carmel to Strasburg and Frankfurt, where the sending of an embassy to Paris was resolved upon.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

===Settling in Geneva===
{{Calvinism}}

Upon his return to Lausanne, Beza was greatly disturbed.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In union with many ministers and professors in city and country, Viret at last thought of establishing a [[Consistory (Protestantism)#Reformed usage|consistory]] and of introducing a church discipline which should apply excommunication especially at the celebration of the communion.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} But the Bernese, then in control of Lausanne, would have no Calvinistic church government.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} This caused many difficulties, and Beza thought it best in 1558 to settle at Geneva.<ref name=HDS/> Here he was given chair of Greek in the newly established academy,{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} and after Calvin's death also that of theology.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He was also obliged to preach.

He completed the revision of [[Pierre Olivetan]]'s translation of the [[New Testament]], begun some years before.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In 1559, he undertook another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, this time to [[Heidelberg]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} At about the same time, he had to defend Calvin against [[Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)|Joachim Westphal]] in [[Hamburg]] and [[Tilemann Heshusius]].

More important than this polemical activity was Beza's statement of his own confession.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} It was originally prepared for his father in justification of his actions and published in revised form to promote Evangelical knowledge among Beza's countrymen.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} It was printed in Latin in 1560 with a dedication to Wolmar.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} An English translation was published at London in 1563, 1572, and 1585.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Translations into German, Dutch, and Italian were also issued.

===Events of 1560–1563===
In the meantime, things took such shape in France that the happiest future for Protestantism seemed possible.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} King [[Antoine of Navarre]], yielding to the urgent requests of Evangelical noblemen, declared his willingness to listen to a prominent teacher of the Church.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Beza, a French nobleman{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} and head of the academy in the metropolis of French Protestantism,{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} was invited to Castle Nerac, but he could not plant the seed of Evangelical faith in the heart of the king.

In the following year, 1561, Beza represented the Evangelicals at the [[Colloquy of Poissy]], and in an eloquent manner defended the principles of the Evangelical faith.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} The colloquy was without result, but Beza as the head and advocate of all Reformed congregations of France was revered and hated at the same time.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The queen insisted upon another colloquy, which was opened at St. Germain 28 January 1562, eleven days after the proclamation of the famous January edict, which granted important privileges to those of the Reformed faith.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} But the colloquy was broken off when it became evident that the Catholic party was preparing (after the [[Massacre of Vassy]], on 1 March) to overthrow Protestantism.

Beza hastily issued a circular letter (25 March) to all Reformed congregations of the empire, and went to Orléans with the Huguenot leader [[Louis, Prince of Condé (1530–1569)|Conde]] and his troops.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} It was necessary to proceed quickly and energetically.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} But there were neither soldiers nor money.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} At the request of Conde, Beza visited all Huguenot cities to obtain both.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He also wrote a manifesto in which he argued the justice of the Reformed cause.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} As one of the messengers to collect soldiers and money among his coreligionists, Beza was appointed to visit England, Germany, and Switzerland. He went to Strasburg and Basel, but met with failure.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He then returned to Geneva, which he reached on 4 September.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He had hardly been there fourteen days when he was called once more to Orléans by D'Andelot. The campaign was becoming more successful; but the publication of the unfortunate edict of pacification which Conde accepted (12 March 1563) filled Beza and all Protestant France with horror.

===Calvin's successor===

For 22 months Beza had been absent from Geneva, and the interests of school and Church there and especially the condition of Calvin made it necessary for him to return, as there was no one to take the place of Calvin, who was sick and unable to work.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Calvin and Beza arranged to perform their duties jointly in alternate weeks, but the death of Calvin occurred soon afterward (27 May 1564). As a matter of course Beza was his successor.<ref name="Major Bib">{{cite book|last=Farthing|first=John L.|title=Dictionary of major biblical interpreters|year=2007|publisher=IVP Academic|location=Downers Grove, Illinois|isbn=978-0-8308-2927-9|edition=2nd|editor-last=McKim |editor-first=Donald K.|page=193|chapter=Beza, Theodore}}</ref>

Until 1580, Beza was not only moderator of the [[Company of Pastors]], but also the real soul of the [[University of Geneva|Academy of Geneva]] which Calvin had founded in 1559.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} As long as he lived, Beza was interested in higher education.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The Protestant youth for nearly forty years thronged his lecture-room to hear his theological lectures, in which he expounded the purest Calvinistic orthodoxy.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} As a counselor he was listened to by both magistrates and pastors.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He founded the Academy's law faculty in which notable jurists such as [[François Hotman]], [[Giulio Pace]], [[Lambert Daneau]], and [[Denis Godefroy]], lectured in turn.<ref name=HDS/><ref>cf. [[Charles Borgeaud]], ''L'Academie de Calvin, '' Geneva, 1900</ref>

===Course of events after 1564===
[[Image:Theodore de Beze.jpg|right|thumb|[[Woodcut]] of Theodore Beza]]
As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The magistrates had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which were the "ministers of the word" and "the consistory", was founded on a solid basis.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical nature, such as the supremacy of the magistrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to submit to the majority of the Company of Pastors.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

Beza did not force his will upon his associates, and took no harsh measures against injudicious or hot-headed colleagues, though sometimes he took their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he often experienced an opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Although he was inclined to take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however, conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

Beza did not believe it wise for the Company of Pastors to have a permanent head.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He convinced the Company to petition the Small Council to have limited terms for the position of moderator.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In 1580 the Council agreed to a weekly rotating presidency.<ref>S. M. Manetsch (2012), ''Calvin's Company of Pastors: Pastoral Care and the Emerging Reformed Church, 1536–1609'', Oxford Studies in Historical Theology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 65.</ref> He mediated between the {{lang|fr|compagnie}} and the magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} After the [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre]] (1572), he used his influence to give to the refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

In 1574, he wrote his {{lang|la|De jure magistratuum}} ([[Right of Magistrates]]), in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons and depose them.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

Without being a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had qualities which made him famous as humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and political affairs, and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In the various controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation and intolerance, from which [[Bernardino Ochino]], pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some objectionable points on polygamy), and [[Sebastian Castellio]] at Basel (on account of his Latin and French translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

Beza continued to maintain the closest relations with Reformed France.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He was the [[Chairman|moderator]] of the general synod which met in April 1571 at [[La Rochelle]] and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher [[Petrus Ramus|Pierre Ramus]] demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper (by the expression: "substance of the body of Christ") against Zwinglianism, which caused a dispute between Beza and Ramus and [[Heinrich Bullinger]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

In May 1572 he took an important part in the national synod at [[Nîmes]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He was also interested in the controversies which concerned the [[Augsburg Confession]] in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of the [[Person of Christ]] and the sacrament, and published several works against [[Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)|Joachim Westphal]], [[Tilemann Heshusius]], [[Nikolaus Selnecker]], [[Johannes Brenz]], and [[Jakob Andrea]]. This caused him to be hated by all those who adhered to Lutheranism in opposition to Melanchthon, especially after 1571.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

===The Colloquy of Montbéliard===
The last polemical conflict of importance Beza encountered from the Lutherans was at the Colloquy of [[Montbéliard]], 14–27 March 1586, (which is also called the Mompelgard Colloquium<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=H3NBAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22mompelgard+colloquium%2C+was+a+meeting%22&pg=PA327 "Mompelgard Colloquium"]. ''Lutheran Cyclopedia''.</ref>) to which he had been invited by the Lutheran Count Frederick of Württemberg at the wish of the French-speaking and Reformed residents as well as by French noblemen who had fled to Montbéliard.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} As a matter of course the intended union which was the purpose of the colloquy was not brought about; nevertheless it called forth serious developments within the Reformed Church.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

{{Blockquote
|text=On the Lutheran side appeared Andrea and [[Lucas Osiander]], assisted by the two political counsellors, Hans Wolf von Anweil and Frederich Schiitz; on the part of the Reformed, Beza, Abraham Musculus (pastor at Berne), Anton Fajus (deacon at Geneva), Peter Hybner (professor of the Greek language at Berne), [[Claude Aubery|Claudius Alberius]] (professor of philosophy at Lausanne), and the two counsellors, Samuel Meyer, of Berne, and Anton Marisius, of Geneva.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mumpelgart, Colloquy of |url=https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/M/mumpelgart-colloquy-of.html |access-date=2021-03-05 |encyclopedia=McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>}}

When the edition of the acts of the colloquy, as prepared by Jakob Andrea, was published, Samuel Huber, of Burg near Bern, who belonged to the Lutheranizing faction of the Swiss clergy, took so great offense at the [[supralapsarian]] doctrine of predestination propounded at Montbéliard by Beza and Musculus that he felt it to be his duty to denounce Musculus to the magistrates of Bern as an innovator in doctrine.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} To adjust the matter, the magistrates arranged a colloquy between Huber and Musculus (2 September 1587), in which the former represented the universalism, the latter the particularism, of grace.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

As the colloquy was resultless, a debate was arranged at Bern on 15–18 April 1588, at which the defense of the accepted system of doctrine was at the start put into Beza's hands.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} The three delegates of the Swiss cantons who presided at the debate declared in the end that Beza had substantiated the teaching propounded at Montbéliard as the orthodox one, and Huber was dismissed from his office.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

===Later years===
[[File:British - Théodore De Beza - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|''Théodore De Beza'' by an unknown artist, inscribed in 1605]]
After that time Beza's activity was confined more and more to the affairs of his home.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} His wife Claudine had died childless in 1588 after forty years of marriage, a few days before he went to the Bern Disputation.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He contracted, on the advice of his friends, a second marriage with the widow Caterina del Piano, a Protestant refugee from [[Asti]], Piedmont,<ref name=HDS/> in order to have a helpmate in his declining years.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} Up to his sixty-fifth year he enjoyed excellent health, but after that a gradual sinking of his vitality became perceptible.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} He was active in teaching until January 1597.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

The saddest experience in his old days was the conversion of King [[Henry IV of France]] to Catholicism, in spite of his most earnest exhortations (1593).{{sfn|Choisy|1914}} In 1596, a false report was spread by the Jesuits in Germany, France, England, and Italy that Beza and the Church of Geneva had returned into the bosom of Rome, and Beza replied in a satire which showed that he still possessed his old fire of thought and vigor of expression.{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}

Beza died on 13 October 1605 in [[Geneva]].<ref name=HDS/> He was not buried, like Calvin, in the general cemetery at [[Plainpalais]] (for the Savoyards had threatened to abduct his body to Rome), but, at the direction of the magistrates, at [[St. Pierre Cathedral|Saint-Pierre Cathedral]].{{sfn|Choisy|1914}}