Editing Tao (section)

== Description and uses of the concept ==
[[File:Calligraphic Dao..png|thumb|Calligraphy of Tao ({{zhi|c=道}})]]

The word "Tao" has a variety of meanings in both the ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use meaning road, channel, path, principle, or similar,{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1996|p=113}} the word has acquired a variety of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical, and religious uses. In most belief systems, the word is used symbolically in its sense of "way" as the right or proper way of existence, or in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual perfection that is the outcome of such practices.{{sfnp|LaFargue|1992|pp=245–247}}

Some scholars make sharp distinctions between the moral or ethical usage of the word "Tao" that is prominent in [[Confucianism]] and religious Taoism and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in philosophical Taoism and most forms of [[Mahayana Buddhism]];{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=136}} others maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the principle.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=206}} The original use of the term was as a form of [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] rather than theory—a term used as a convention to refer to something that otherwise cannot be discussed in words—and early writings such as the ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''[[I Ching]]'' make pains to distinguish between ''conceptions of'' the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or understood in language.{{NoteTag|''Tao Te Ching'', Chapter 1. "It is from the unnamed Tao<br />That Heaven and Earth sprang;<br /> The named is but<br />The Mother of the ten thousand creatures."}}{{NoteTag|''I Ching'', ''Ta Chuan'' (Great Treatise). "The kind man discovers it and calls it kind;<br/> the wise man discovers it and calls it wise;<br /> the common people use it every day<br/> and are not aware of it."}}{{sfnp|Liu|1981|pp=1-3}} Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept and that there are not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of the Tao but personal differences that reflect the character of individual practitioners.{{sfnp|Liu|1981|pp=2–3}}<!--Reference supports entire paragraph, including the references to primary sources.-->

The Tao can be roughly thought of as the "flow of the universe", or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered.{{sfnp|Cane|2002|p=13}} It is related to [[qi]], the essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle—it is the greater whole from which all the individual elements of the Universe derive. [[Catherine Keller]] considers it similar to the [[negative theology]] of Western scholars,{{sfnp|Keller|2003|p=289}} but the Tao is rarely an object of direct worship, being treated more like the [[Hindu]] concepts of [[karma]], [[dharma]], or ''[[Ṛta]]'' than as a divine object.{{sfnp|LaFargue|1994|p=283}} The Tao is more commonly expressed in the relationship between ''[[Mu (negative)|wu]]'' (void or emptiness, in the sense of [[wuji (philosophy)|''wuji'']]) and the natural, dynamic balance between opposites, leading to its central principle of ''[[wu wei]]'' (inaction or inexertion).

The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in particular, as similar to water.{{sfnp|Carlson |Flanagin |Martin |Martin |2010 |p=704}}{{sfnp|Jian-guang|2019|pp=754, 759}} Like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous.{{NoteTag|Water is soft and flexible, yet possesses an immense power to overcome obstacles and alter landscapes, even carving canyons with its slow and steady persistence. It is viewed as a reflection of, or close in action to, the Tao. The Tao is often expressed as a sea or flood that cannot be dammed or denied. It flows around and over obstacles like water, setting an example for those who wish to live in accord with it.{{sfnp|Ch'eng|Cheng|1991|pp=175–177}} }} The [[Song dynasty]] painter [[Chen Rong (painter)|Chen Rong]] popularized the [[analogy]] with his painting [[Nine Dragons (painting)|''Nine Dragons'']].{{sfnp|Carlson |Flanagin |Martin |Martin |2010 |p=704}}

Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the cyclical continuity of the natural world and its contrast to the linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings, as well as the perception that the Tao is "the source of all being, in which life and death are the same."{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=365}}

In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be ''known'' or ''experienced'', and its principles (which can be discerned by observing nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so.

[[File:Pakua with frame.svg|thumb|right|The [[bagua]], a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit]]
The Tao was shared with Confucianism, [[Chan Buddhism]] and [[Zen]], and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to "become one with the Tao" (''Tao Te Ching'') or to harmonize one's will with nature to achieve 'effortless action'. This involves meditative and moral practices. Important in this respect is the Taoist concept of ''[[De (Chinese)|de]]'' ('virtue'). In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism, these are often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). The Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts of [[yin and yang]], where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable movements within manifestations of the Tao, and proper practice variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these natural developments.

In Taoism and Confucianism, the Tao was sometimes traditionally seen as a "transcendent power that blesses" that can "express itself directly" through various ways, but most often shows itself through the speech, movement, or traditional ritual of a "prophet, priest, or king."{{sfnp|Carlson |Flanagin |Martin |Martin |2010 |p=730}} Tao can serve as a life energy instead of [[qi]] in some Taoist belief systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taoism |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/taoism |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref>

===''De''===
{{Main|De (Chinese)}}

''De'' ({{zhi|c=德|l=power', 'virtue', 'integrity}}) is the term generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao. ''De'' is the active living or cultivation of the way.{{sfnp|Maspero|1981|p=32}} Particular things (things with names) that manifest from the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow in accordance with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature is ''De''. ''Wu wei'', or 'naturalness', is contingent on understanding and conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human nature within the greater Universe.{{sfnp|Bodde|Fung|1997|pp=99–101}}

Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified social rules. Taoists took a broader, more naturalistic, more metaphysical view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe and considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the natural and spontaneous interactions between people and at worst calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict. This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucians. Several sections of the works attributed to [[Zhuang Zhou]] are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.