Editing Taiko (section)

==History==

===Origin===
[[File:ThreeHaniwa.jpg|thumb|right|[[Haniwa]] figures, dated to the 6th century CE. The left and right depict two drum performers. The statue on the left, depicted using a stick on a barrel-shaped drum, represents the earliest evidence of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} usage in Japan.|alt=Three plain clay figures, featuring long, skirt-like columnar bases. The outer two figures are depicted playing drums. Only one figure, in the middle, has a head.]]
The origin of the {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588&nbsp;CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the {{transliteration|ja|[[Kakko (instrument)|kakko]]}}, a drum that originated in [[South China]]. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}.{{sfn|Blades|1992|pp=122–123}} Certain court music styles, especially {{transliteration|ja|[[gigaku]]}} and {{transliteration|ja|[[gagaku]]}}, arrived in Japan through both China and Korea.{{sfn|Nelson|2007|pp=36, 39}}{{sfn|Schuller|1989|p=202}} In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}.{{sfn|Schuller|1989|p=202}}{{sfn|Cossío|2001|p=179}} Certain percussive patterns and terminology in {{transliteration|ja|[[togaku]]}}, an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the {{transliteration|ja|kakko}}, also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}} performance.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=26}}{{sfn|Harich-Schneider|1973|pp=108, 110}}

Archaeological evidence shows that {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE,<ref name=TNM>{{cite web|title=Music Festival at the Museum|url=http://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=684|publisher=Tokyo National Museum|access-date=24 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054639/http://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_free_page/index.php?id=684|archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> during the latter part of the [[Kofun period]], and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals.{{sfn|Dean|2012|p=122}} This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of [[haniwa]] statues in the [[Sawa District, Gunma|Sawa District]] of [[Gunma Prefecture]]. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums;{{sfn|Dean|2012|p=122}} one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height.{{sfnm|Dean|2012|1p=122|Varian|2013|2p=21}}<ref name=Ochi>{{cite web|last1=Ochi|first1=Megumi|title=What The Haniwa Have to Say About Taiko's Roots: The History of Taiko|url=http://www.taiko.com/taiko_resource/history/haniwa_ochi.html|publisher=Rolling Thunder|access-date=27 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202185535/http://www.taiko.com/taiko_resource/history/haniwa_ochi.html|archive-date=2 February 2015}}</ref> This statue is titled "Man Beating the {{transliteration|ja|Taiko}}" and is considered the oldest evidence of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} performance in Japan.<ref name=Ochi />{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=21}} Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this {{transliteration|ja|haniwa}} and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions.{{sfn|Varian|2013|p=21}}

The {{transliteration|ja|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}, the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}. The myth tells how [[Amaterasu]], who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess [[Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto|Ame-no-Uzume]] when others had failed. Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of [[sake]] and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} music.{{sfnm|Minor|2003|1pp=37–39|Izumi|2001|2pp=37–39|Raz|1983|3p=19}}

===Use in warfare===
[[File:Girl-Plays-Shime-Daiko-Drum-c1885.png|thumb|right|Hand-colored print of a woman playing a {{transliteration|ja|[[shime-daiko]]}}, circa 1885|alt=A woman wearing a kimono and traditional hairstyle kneels on a tatami mat, playing a drum in front of her with two sticks.]]
In feudal Japan, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum.{{sfn|Turnbull|2008|p=37}}{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|pp=27–28}} During the 16th-century [[Sengoku period|Warring States period]], specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing.{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=27}} Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts. According to the war chronicle {{transliteration|ja|Gunji Yoshū}}, nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy.{{sfn|Turnbull|2008|p=49}} Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century [[Emperor Keitai]] offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named {{nihongo3|"front drum"|線陣太鼓|Senjin-daiko}}.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}} The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.{{sfn|Gould|1998|p=12}}

===In traditional settings===
{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration. In the [[kabuki]] play ''The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles'', scenes in the [[Yūkaku|pleasure quarters]] are accompanied by {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} to create dramatic tension.{{sfn|Brandon|Leiter|2002|p=86}} [[Noh]] theatre also features {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} music,{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=176}}{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=286–288}} where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns. The {{nihongo||金春流|Konparu}} school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}} Differences between these patterns include changes in [[tempo]], [[accent (music)|accent]], [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], [[pitch (music)|pitch]], and function in the theatrical performance. Patterns are also often connected together in progressions.{{sfn|Malm|1960|pp=75–78}}

{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} continue to be used in {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}, a classical music tradition typically performed at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]] in addition to local temples and shrines.{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=101–102}} In {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}, one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}.{{sfn|Malm|2000|pp=103}}

{{transliteration|ja|Taiko}} have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan.<ref name=JANM>{{cite web|title=Kenny Endo: Connecting to Heritage through Music|url=http://www.janm.org/exhibits/bigdrum/interviews/endo.php|work=Big Drum|publisher=[[Japanese American National Museum]]|access-date=7 November 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109222631/http://www.janm.org/exhibits/bigdrum/interviews/endo.php|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In {{transliteration|ja|[[kagura]]}}, a category of music and dances stemming from [[Shinto]] practices, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} are used for ritual dances as part of the [[Bon Festival]].{{sfn|Miki|2008|p=180}}{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=110}} {{transliteration|ja|Taiko}}, along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.{{sfn|Malm|2000|p=77}}

==={{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}}===
{{See also|Daihachi Oguchi|Ondekoza|Kodo (taiko group)}}
[[File:TaikoDrummersAichiJapan.jpg|thumb|left|A {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} group performing in [[Aichi, Japan]] wearing {{transliteration|ja|[[hachimaki]]}}|alt=refer to caption]]
In addition to the instruments, the term {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} also refers to the performance itself,{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=134}}{{sfn|Ingram|2004|p=71}} and commonly to one style called {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}}, or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums).{{sfn|Miller|Shahriari|2014|p=146}}{{sfn|Powell 2012a}} {{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}} was developed by [[Daihachi Oguchi]] in 1951.{{sfn|Miller|Shahriari|2014|p=146}}{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=33}} He is considered a master performer and helped transform {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|title=Daihachi Oguchi, 84, Japanese Drummer, Dies|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/28/arts/music/28oguchi.html?_r=0|access-date=21 August 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=28 June 2008|agency=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403195338/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/28/arts/music/28oguchi.html?_r=0|archive-date=3 April 2017}}</ref> Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} music.{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation,{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=28}} Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} performance.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=29}}{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=51}}

Oguchi's ensemble, [[Osuwa Daiko]], incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances.{{sfn|Alves|2012|p=312}} Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. [[Oedo Sukeroku Daiko]] was formed in [[Tokyo]] in 1959 under [[Seidō Kobayashi]],{{sfn|Powell 2012b|p=125}} and has been referred to as the first {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} group who toured professionally.{{sfn|Wong|2004|p=204}} Globally, {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} performance became more visible during the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event.{{sfn|Varian|2005|pp=28–29}}

{{transliteration|ja|Kumi-daiko}} was also developed through the leadership of {{nihongo|[[Den Tagayasu]]|田耕}}, who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} playing and took them to [[Sado Island]] for training{{sfn|Varian|2005|p = 29}}{{sfn|Wald|Vartoogian|2007|p=251}} where Den and his family had settled in 1968.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=65}} Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly {{transliteration|ja|taiko}}; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called {{nihongo3|"demon drumming" in the Sado dialect|鬼太鼓|ondeko}} that required considerable strength to play well.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|pp=64–65}} Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or [[Ondekoza]] for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running.{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=28}}{{sfn|Wald|Vartoogian|2007|p=251}} In 1975, Ondekoza was the first {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the [[Boston Marathon]] while wearing their traditional uniforms.{{sfn|Konagaya|2005|p=149}}{{sfn|McLeod|2013|p=171}} In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called [[Kodo (taiko group)|Kodo]] under the leadership of [[Eitetsu Hayashi]].{{sfn|Hoover|2011|p=98}} Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers.{{sfn|Lacashire|2011|p=14}} Kodo is one of the most recognized {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} groups both in Japan<ref name=Arita>{{cite news|last1=Arita|first1=Eriko|title=Kodo drum troupe marks 25 years of Earth Celebration|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2012/08/17/events/events-outside-tokyo/kodo-drum-troupe-marks-25-years-of-earth-celebration/#.VIjBF3sZfCs|access-date=10 December 2014|work=[[The Japan Times]]|date=17 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730003142/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2012/08/17/events/events-outside-tokyo/kodo-drum-troupe-marks-25-years-of-earth-celebration/#.VIjBF3sZfCs|archive-date=30 July 2016}}</ref><ref name=Matsumoto>{{cite news|last1=Matsumoto|first1=John|title=Gospel and Drums According to Kodo : Music: Southland choir members will blend their talents with rhythms of Japanese ensemble in non-traditional concert on Sado Island in Japan.|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-08-17-ca-670-story.html|access-date=10 December 2014|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=17 August 1990|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20141211010343/http://articles.latimes.com/1990-08-17/entertainment/ca-670_1_gospel-music|archive-date=11 December 2014}}</ref> and worldwide.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=72}}<ref>{{bulleted list|{{cite news|last1=Barr|first1=Gordon|title=Japanese taiko drumming troupe Kodo head to Sage Gateshead|url=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/japanese-taiko-drumming-troupe-kodo-6725157|access-date=10 December 2014|work=Chronicle Live|publisher=Trinity Mirror North East|date=19 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210235027/http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/japanese-taiko-drumming-troupe-kodo-6725157|archive-date=10 December 2014}}|
{{cite news|last1=Keogh|first1=Tom|title=Top taiko drum group, Kodo, rolls into town|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/musicnightlife/2008686763_zmus30kodo.html|access-date=10 December 2014|work=[[The Seattle Times]]|date=30 January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220161503/http://seattletimes.com/html/musicnightlife/2008686763_zmus30kodo.html|archive-date=20 December 2014}}|
{{cite news|title=Soh Daiko, the Fine Art of Japanese Drumming|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/02/arts/soh-daiko-the-fine-art-of-japanese-drumming.html|access-date=11 November 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=2 May 1986|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111212228/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/02/arts/soh-daiko-the-fine-art-of-japanese-drumming.html|archive-date=11 November 2014}}}}</ref>

Estimates of the number of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan,{{sfn|Varian|2005|p=17}} but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of {{transliteration|ja|taiko}} groups.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=3}} Some pieces that have emerged from early {{transliteration|ja|kumi-daiko}} groups that continue to be performed include [[Yatai-bayashi]] from Ondekoza,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=74}} {{nihongo|Isami-goma|勇み駒||lit. "galloping horse"}} from Osuwa Daiko,{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=87}} and {{nihongo|Zoku|族||lit. "tribe"}} from Kodo.{{sfn|Bender|2012|p=102}}