Editing Syracuse, Sicily (section)

== History ==
{{Anchor|History of Syracuse}}
{{For timeline}}

=== Archaic period ===
{{See also|Magna Graecia|List of tyrants of Syracuse}}
[[File:SNGANS 259.jpg|thumb|A Syracusan [[tetradrachm]] (c. 415–405&nbsp;BC), sporting [[Arethusa (mythology)|Arethusa]] and a [[quadriga]].]]
[[File:Decadrachme de Sicile sous Denys l'Ancien.jpg|thumb|Decadrachm struck at Syracuse, by the die-master Euainetos]]
[[File:Athena portrait by Eukleidas on Syracuse tetradrachm c. 400 BC.jpg|thumb|Syracusian tetradrachm with the portrait of Athena by Eukleidas, c. 400 BC]]
[[File:Sicily Syracuse Arethusa Tetradrachm.jpg|alt=syracuse tetradrachm, arethusa|thumb|Tetradrachm, circa 485–479 BC, with Arethusa on the obverse, and a quadriga driven by a male charioteer on the reverse.]]

Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and ''Thapsos'', which already had a relationship with [[Mycenaean Greece]].

Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733&nbsp;BC in Sicily by Greek settlers from [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]] and [[Tenea]], led by the ''[[oecist]]'' (colonizer) [[Archias of Corinth|Archias]]. There are many attested variants of the name of the city including {{lang|grc|Συράκουσαι}} ''Syrakousai'', {{lang|grc|Συράκοσαι}} ''Syrakosai'' and {{lang|grc|Συρακώ}} ''Syrakō''.<ref name=SyrakousaiLSJ /> One observation cited for the origin of the name is that the [[Phoenicians]] called it Sour-ha-Koussim, which means "Stone of the seagulls" from which would come the name of Syracuse.<ref>[[Victor Bérard]], ''Les phéniciens et l'Odyssée'', Paris: Armand Colin, tome 2, [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5774174h/f529.item p.515]</ref> However, this etymology does not account for the name variant {{lang|grc|Συρακώ}} ''Syrakō''. Another possible origin of the city's name was given by [[Vibius Sequester]] citing<ref name=VibiusS>{{cite book|title=De Fluminibus Fontibus Lacubus Nemoribus Paludibus Montibus Gentibus quorum apud poeta mentio fit|author=Vibius Sequester|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/vibiussequester00sequgoog#page/n313/mode/2up|page=287|chapter=Tyraca|year=1778 |publisher=apud Amandum König}}</ref> first [[Stephanus Byzantius]]<ref name=SyrakousaiLSJ /><ref name=SBEthnika>''Ethnika'' 592.18–21,593.1–8, i.e. [[Stephanus of Byzantium|Stephanus Byzantinus]]' ''Ethnika'' (kat'epitomen), lemma {{lang|grc|Συράκουσαι}} {{cite book|title=Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorvm quae svpersvnt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMZiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA592|editor-last=Meineke|editor-first=Augustus|editor-link=Augustus Meineke|pages=592–593|publisher=Impensis G. Reimeri|volume=Prior|year=1849}}</ref> in that there was a Syracusian marsh ({{lang|grc|λίμνη}}) called ''Syrako'' and secondly [[Marcian of Heraclea|Marcian]]'s ''Periegesis'' wherein Archias gave the city the name of a nearby marsh; hence one gets ''Syrako'' (and thereby ''Syrakousai'' and other variants) for the name of Syracuse, a name also attested by [[Epicharmus]].<ref name=SyrakousaiLSJ /><ref name=EpicharmusFr>{{cite book|title=Epicharmi Fragmenta|year=1834 |url=https://archive.org/details/fragmenta00epic|page=[https://archive.org/details/fragmenta00epic/page/111 111]|publisher=apud Vincentium Loosjes}}</ref> The settlement of Syracuse was a [[Planned city|planned event]], as a strong central leader, Arkhias the aristocrat, laid out how property would be divided up for the settlers, as well as plans for how the streets of the settlement should be arranged, and how wide they should be.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Greek Art and Archaeology|last=Neer|first=Richard|publisher=Thames and Hudson|year=2012|isbn=978-0-500-28877-1|location=New York City|page=96}}</ref> The nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of [[Ortygia]]. The settlers found the land fertile and the [[Sicels|native tribes]] to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in the [[Mediterranean]]. Colonies were founded at [[Akrai]] (664&nbsp;BC), [[Kasmenai]] (643&nbsp;BC), [[Akrillai]] (7th century&nbsp;BC), [[Helorus]] (7th century&nbsp;BC) and [[Kamarina, Sicily|Kamarina]] (598&nbsp;BC).

===Classical period===
[[File:Putz97.jpg|left|thumb|Map of ancient Syracuse.]]
The descendants of the first colonists, called ''Gamoroi'', held power until they were expelled by the lower class of the city assisted by Cyllyrians, identified as enslaved natives similar in status to the [[helots]] of Sparta.<ref>[[Herodotus]], [[Histories (Herodotus)|''Histories'']], book 7, chap. 155</ref><ref>''[https://www.hellenicaworld.com/Greece/WS/en/Servus.html Servus]'', A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), ed. [[William Smith (lexicographer)|Sir William Smith]] et. al.</ref> The former, however, returned to power in 485&nbsp;BC, thanks to the help of [[Gelo]], ruler of [[Gela]]. Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and [[Megara]] to Syracuse, building the new quarters of Tyche and Neapolis outside the walls.{{cn|date=April 2023}} His program of new constructions included a new theatre, designed by [[Damocopos]], which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities as [[Aeschylus]], Ario of [[Methymna]] and Eumelos of Corinth. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginians]], who ruled western Sicily. In the [[Battle of Himera (480&nbsp;BC)|Battle of Himera]], Gelo, who had allied with Theron of [[Agrigento]], decisively defeated the African force led by [[Hamilcar]]. A temple dedicated to [[Athena]] (on the site of today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event.{{cn|date=April 2023}}

Syracuse grew considerably during this time. Its walls encircled {{convert|120|ha}} in the fifth century, but as early as the 470s&nbsp;BC the inhabitants started building outside the walls. The complete population of its territory approximately numbered 250,000 in 415&nbsp;BC and the population size of the city itself was probably similar to Athens.<ref name=morr />

Gelo was succeeded by his brother [[Hiero I of Syracuse|Hiero]], who [[Battle of Cumae|fought]] against the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] at [[Battle of Cumae|Cumae]] in 474&nbsp;BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like [[Simonides of Ceos]], [[Bacchylides]] and [[Pindar]], who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by [[Thrasybulus of Syracuse|Thrasybulos]] (467&nbsp;BC).<ref>[[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' 5.1312b</ref> The city continued to expand in [[Sicily]], [[Battle of Nomae|fighting]] against the rebellious [[Siculi]], and on the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]], making expeditions up to [[Corsica]] and [[Elba]]. In the late 5th century&nbsp;BC, Syracuse found itself at war with [[Athens]], which sought more resources to fight the [[Peloponnesian War]]. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from [[Sparta]], Athens' foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (see [[Sicilian Expedition]]). In 401&nbsp;BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 300 [[hoplites]] and a general to [[Cyrus the Younger]]'s [[Army of the Ten Thousand]].<ref>[[Xenophon]]. ''[[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'', book 1, chapter 2, IX</ref>

Then in the early 4th century&nbsp;BC, the [[tyrant]] [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius the Elder]] was again at war against [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole of Sicily.{{cn|date=April 2023}} After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on Ortygia and 22&nbsp;km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw the destruction of [[Naxos (Sicily)|Naxos]], [[Catania]] and [[Lentini]]; then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397&nbsp;BC).{{cn|date=April 2023}} After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to [[Siege of Syracuse (397 BC)|besiege Syracuse]] itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392&nbsp;BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of [[Adrano]]n, [[Tindari|Tyndarion]] and [[Taormina|Tauromenos]], and conquering [[Reggio Calabria|Rhegion]] on the continent. In the [[Adriatic]], to facilitate trade, [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius the Elder]] founded [[Ancona]], [[Adria]] and [[Vis (island)|Issa]]. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, and [[Plato]] himself visited Syracuse several times, where Dionysius, offended by Plato's daring to disagree with the king, imprisoned the philosopher and sold him into slavery (according to some sources).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Brickhouse |first1=Thomas |last2=Smith |first2=Nicholas D. |title=Plato |url=https://iep.utm.edu/plato/ |access-date= |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophers}}</ref>

His successor was [[Dionysius II of Syracuse|Dionysius the Younger]], who was however expelled by [[Dion (tyrant of Syracuse)|Dion]] in 356&nbsp;BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347&nbsp;BC.{{cn|date=April 2023}} Dionysius was [[Siege of Syracuse (343 BC)|besieged in Syracuse]] by the Syracusan general [[Hicetas (general)|Hicetas]] in 344&nbsp;BC. The following year the Corinthian [[Timoleon]] installed a democratic regime in the city after he exiled Dionysius and defeated Hicetas. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in the [[Battle of the Crimissus]] (339&nbsp;BC).{{cn|date=April 2023}}

===Hellenistic period===
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[[File:Thesaurus opticus Titelblatt.jpg|thumb|The siege of Syracuse in a 17th-century engraving.]]

After Timoleon's death the struggle among the city's parties restarted and ended with the rise of another tyrant, [[Agathocles of Syracuse|Agathocles]], who seized power with a coup in 317&nbsp;BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He was [[Siege of Syracuse (311–309 BC)|besieged in Syracuse]] by the Carthaginians in 311&nbsp;BC, but he escaped from the city with a small fleet. He scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The defenders of Syracuse destroyed the Carthaginian army which besieged them. However, Agathocles was eventually defeated in Africa as well. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians from interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of Agathocles (289&nbsp;BC). They [[Siege of Syracuse (278 BC)|laid siege to Syracuse]] for the fourth and last time in 278&nbsp;BC. They retreated at the arrival of king [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], whom Syracuse had asked for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus, [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]] seized power in 275&nbsp;BC.

Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracuse became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the so-called ''[[Lex Hieronica]]'', which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theatre enlarged and a new immense [[altar]], the "Hiero's Ara", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the mathematician and [[natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] [[Archimedes]]. Among his many inventions were various military engines including the [[claw of Archimedes]], later used to resist the [[Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC)|Roman siege]] of 214–212&nbsp;BC. Literary figures included [[Theocritus]] and others.

Hiero's successor, the young [[Hieronymus of Syracuse|Hieronymus]] (ruled from 215&nbsp;BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at the [[Battle of Cannae]] and accepted [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]]'s support. The Romans, led by consul [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus]], [[Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC)|besieged the city]] in 214&nbsp;BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212&nbsp;BC. The successes of the Syracusians in repelling the Roman siege had made them overconfident. In 212&nbsp;BC, the Romans received information that the city's inhabitants were to participate in the annual festival to their goddess [[Artemis]]. A small party of Roman soldiers approached the city under the cover of night and managed to scale the walls to get into the outer city and with reinforcements soon took control, killing Archimedes in the process, but the main fortress remained firm. After an eight-month siege and with parleys in progress, an [[Iberians|Iberian]] captain named Moeriscus is believed to have let the Romans in near the Fountains of Arethusa. On the agreed signal, during a diversionary attack, he opened the gate. After setting guards on the houses of the pro-Roman faction, Marcellus gave Syracuse to plunder.

=== Imperial Roman and Byzantine period ===
[[File:Syrakus BW 2012-10-06 16-44-19.jpg|thumb|The Roman amphitheatre]]
[[File:Temple of Apollo, Syracuse, Sicily.JPG|thumb|The [[Temple of Apollo (Syracuse)|Temple of Apollo]]]]
[[File:Sicilia Siracusa1 tango7174.jpg|thumb|Piazza Duomo]]
[[File:SiracusaCathedral-pjt1.jpg|thumb|The Cathedral]]
Though declining slowly through the years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the [[praetor]]. It remained an important port for trade between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire. Christianity spread in the city through the efforts of [[Paul of Tarsus]] and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres of [[proselytism]] in the West. In the age of Christian persecutions massive [[catacomb]]s were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.

After a period of [[Vandal]] rule, 469–477, Syracuse and the island was recovered for Italian rule under Odoacer (476–491) and Theodoric the Great (491–526), and then by [[Belisarius]] for the [[Byzantine Empire]] (31 December 535).<ref>. J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 1958 Edition, pp. Vol I, 254, 327, 410; Vol II p. 171</ref> From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of the Greek-speaking Emperor [[Constans II (Byzantine Empire)|Constans II]], as well as a capital of the [[Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire]] and metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church. Constans II was assassinated when his plans to permanently replace the Byzantine capital of Constantinople with Syracuse became suspected.

=== Emirate of Sicily ===
{{Main|Emirate of Sicily}}
The city was [[Siege of Syracuse (827–828)|besieged]] by the [[Aghlabids]] for almost a year in 827–828, but Byzantine reinforcements prevented its fall. It remained the center of Byzantine resistance to the gradual [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] until it fell to the Aghlabids after [[Siege of Syracuse (877–878)|another siege]] on 20/21 May 878. During the two centuries of [[Muslim]] rule, the capital of the [[Emirate of Sicily]] was moved from Syracuse to [[Palermo]]. The cathedral was converted into a mosque and the quarter on the [[Ortygia]] island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including [[Ibn Hamdis]], the most important [[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian Arab]] poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.

=== Norman kingdom of Sicily ===
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In 1038, the Byzantine general [[George Maniakes]] reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to [[Constantinople]]. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under the [[Hohenstaufen]] rule. In 1086, the [[Normans]] entered Syracuse, one of the last [[Arab]] strongholds, after [[Siege of Syracuse (1086)|siege lasting from May to October]] by [[Roger I of Sicily]] and his son [[Jordan of Hauteville]], who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.

=== High medieval period ===
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In 1194, [[Emperor Henry VI]] occupied the Sicilian kingdom, including Syracuse. After a short period of [[Genoa#Middle Ages and Renaissance|Genoese]] rule (1205–1220) under the notorious admiral and pirate [[Alamanno da Costa]], which favoured a rise of trades, royal authority was re-asserted in the city by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]. He began the construction of the [[Castello Maniace]], the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]] between the [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragonese]] dynasties for control of Sicily, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and expelled the Angevins in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The preeminence of baronial families is also shown by the construction of the palaces of [[Abela]], [[Chiaramonte]], Nava, Montalto.

=== 16th–20th centuries ===
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The city was struck by two ruinous earthquakes in 1542 and [[1693 Sicily earthquake|1693]], and a plague in 1729. The 17th century destruction changed the appearance of Syracuse forever, as well as the entire [[Val di Noto]], whose cities were rebuilt along the typical lines of [[Sicilian Baroque]], considered one of the most typical expressions of the architecture of Southern Italy. The spread of [[cholera]] in 1837 led to a revolt against the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] government. The punishment was the move of the province capital seat to [[Noto]], but the unrest had not been totally choked, as the Siracusani took part in the [[Sicilian revolution of 1848]].

After the [[Unification of Italy]] of 1865, Syracuse regained its status of provincial capital. In the late 19th century, the walls (including [[Porta Ligny]]) were demolished and a bridge connecting the mainland to Ortygia island was built. In the following year a railway link was constructed.

=== Modern history ===
[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] bombings in 1943 caused heavy destruction during [[World War II]]. ''Operation Husky'', the codename for the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]], was launched on the night between 9–10 July 1943 with British forces attacking the southeast of the island. The plan was for the [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 5th Infantry Division]], part of [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Bernard Montgomery|Sir Bernard Montgomery]]'s [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]], to capture Syracuse on the first day of the invasion. This part of the operation went completely according to plan, and British forces captured Syracuse on the first night of the operation.<ref>Bitter Victory: The Battle for Sicily, 1943 by Carlo D'Este, pg. 148</ref> The port was then used as a base for the British [[Royal Navy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olive-drab.com/od_history_ww2_ops_battles_1943sicily.php|title=Operation Husky, Sicily 1943|publisher=olive-drab.com|date=12 April 2008}}</ref> To the west of the city is a [[Syracuse Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery|Commonwealth War Graves cemetery]] where about 1,000 men are buried. After the end of the war the northern quarters of Syracuse experienced a heavy, often chaotic, expansion, favoured by the quick process of industrialization.

Syracuse today has about 125,000 inhabitants and numerous attractions for the visitor interested in historical sites (such as the [[Ear of Dionysius]]). A process of recovering and restoring the historical centre has been ongoing since the 1990s. Nearby places of note include [[Catania]], [[Noto]], [[Modica]] and [[Ragusa, Italy|Ragusa]].