Editing Sudanese Armed Forces (section)

== History ==
{{Further information|Sudan Defence Force}}
The origins of the Sudanese army can be traced to six battalions of black soldiers from southern Sudan, recruited by the British during the [[Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan|reconquest of Sudan in 1898]].{{sfn|Metz|1992|p=233}} Sudan officially became the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] in 1899. The highest-ranking British officer in Egypt, known as the [[Sirdar (Egypt)|Sirdar]], also served as [[List of governors of pre-independence Sudan|Governor General of the Sudan]]. In 1922, after [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|nationalist riots]] stimulated by Egyptian leader [[Saad Zaghloul]], Egypt was [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|granted independence]] by the United Kingdom. The Egyptians wanted more oversight in the Sudan and created specialized units of Sudanese auxiliaries within the [[Egyptian Army]] called al-Awtirah. This became the nucleus of the modern Sudanese Army.

The [[British Army]] formed the [[Sudan Defence Force]] (SDF) as local auxiliaries in 1925. The SDF consisted of a number of separate regiments. Most were made up of Muslim soldiers and stationed in the north, but the [[Equatoria Corps]] in the south was composed of Christians.{{sfn|Playfair|Stitt|Molony|Toomer|1959|p=168}} During the Second World War, the SDF augmented allied forces engaging Italians in Ethiopia. They also served during the [[Western Desert Campaign]], supporting [[Free French]] and [[Long Range Desert Group]] operations at [[Kufra]] and [[Jalo oasis|Jalo]] oases in the [[Libyan Desert]]. "In 1947, the Sudanese military schools were closed, and the number of Sudanese troops was reduced to 7,570."{{sfn|Aboul-Enein|2004}} In 1948, the first Arab-Israeli War broke out. Sudanese Colonel Harold Saleh al-Malik selected 250 combat-seasoned soldiers who had seen action in World War II. They arrived in Cairo to participate in a parade and were then dispatched to various units of the Egyptian army. This was a grave mistake, for the Sudanese had fought together in World War II and this broke unit cohesion. The decision was indicative of Egyptian military planners of the period. Forty-three Sudanese were killed in action in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. In 1953, the British and the new Egyptian government reached an agreement that Sudan was to be put on the path of independence. General Ahmed Mohammed became Sudan's first army chief in August 1954. This is significant for the Sudanese, for it was the first time it had an independent army that was not governed by Britain or Egypt.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

In July 1951, Maj Gen [[Lashmer Whistler]], Commandant of the Sudan Defence Force, wrote in ''British Army Review,'' (Issue 6, July 1951) that at that point the SDF comprised four infantry/camel units, a signals regiment, an AA artillery regiment and other units. In March 1954, British troops in the Sudan consisted of one battalion stationed in Khartoum, reporting ultimately to the Governor-General.<ref>[[British Parliament]] [https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1954/mar/10/british-troops-in-the-sudan House of Lords Debate, 10 March 1954] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712021949/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1954/mar/10/british-troops-in-the-sudan |date=12 July 2009 }}</ref> The Governor-General's military commander was the Major-General Commanding British Troops in the Sudan, who was also Commandant of the Sudan Defence Force. In this post from 1950 onward was Major General Reginald 'Cully' Scoons.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/8041179/Major-General-Sir-Reginald-Cully-Scoones.html|title=Major-General Sir Reginald "Cully" Scoones|date=11 October 1991|work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=23 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224010725/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/8041179/Major-General-Sir-Reginald-Cully-Scoones.html|archive-date=24 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> The last British troops, 1st Battalion [[Royal Leicestershire Regiment]], left the country on 16 August 1955.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britishmilitaryhistory.co.uk/aqadmin/media/uploads/4afc2b2824097_British%20Troops%20The%20Sudan%20History%20&%20Personnel.pdf|title=British Troops in the Sudan}}</ref> All of the British troops were gone by the end of August 1955.{{sfn|O'Ballance|1977|p=42}}

The [[Equatoria Corps]] mutinied at [[Torit]] on 18 August 1955, just before independence, prompting the formation of the [[Anyanya]] guerilla movement and the [[First Sudanese Civil War]].{{sfn|Collins|2005|p=140}} No. 2 Company of the Equatoria Corps had been ordered to make ready to move to the north for ceremonies marking the exit of the last British troops, but instead of obeying, the troops mutinied, along with other Southern soldiers across the South in [[Juba, Southern Sudan|Juba]], [[Yei, Sudan|Yei]], [[Yombo, Sudan|Yombo]], and [[Maridi]].{{sfn|Poggo|2008|p=31, 40}} Thousands of Northern troops were flown in to suppress the mutiny, and by the month's end, the Equatoria Corps had been "eliminated".{{sfn|Robinson|2022|p=6}}

=== Independence ===
"In the aftermath of the 1954 Torit mutiny, Northern servicemen who had left the forces after the Second World War were allowed to return to the colours, and additional recruitment took place."{{sfn|Robinson|2022|page=18}}

On independence in 1956, the army was "regarded as a highly trained, competent{{nbsp}}... force, but its character changed in succeeding years." Army officers, however, had begun considering involvement in politics by the eve of independence.{{sfn|Robinson|2022|p=6}} Numbers began expanding before independence, reaching 12,000 personnel by 1959, and leveled off at nearly 50,000 in 1972.{{sfn|Metz|1992|p=234}} After independence, the military -particularly the educated officer corps- became more and more politically involved; soldiers associated themselves with parties and movements across the political spectrum."{{sfn|Metz|1992|p=234}} On November 17, 1958, the army's two senior generals, Major General [[Ibrahim Abboud]], the armed forces commander, and Ahmad Abd al Wahab, seized power in a [[1958 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup]].{{sfn|First|1970|p=222-23}} "The coup in the Sudan, far from being a take-over.. by the army, was a hand-over to the army. It was a coup by courtesy.. in response to the demand for emergency measures.." by the head of the government, [[Abdallah Khalil]].{{sfn|First|1970|p=222-23}}

The [[First Sudanese Civil War]] broke out in a series of actions in the south in late 1963 and early 1964. Attacks on police posts and convoys began in September 1963, and the higher-profile early attack on the Armed Forces came in January 1964, when rebels attacked the barracks at [[Wau, Sudan]].{{sfn|Robinson|2022|pages=9–10}} President Abboud was forced to step down following [[Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|demonstrations which began in mid-1964]].

During 1969, the Sudanese Army consisted of about 26,500 men, four infantry brigades of four battalions each, three independent infantry battalions, one armoured regiment, a parachute regiment, an armoured regiment and three artillery regiments.{{sfn|Institute for Strategic Studies|1971|p=43-44}} After independence, British advisers helped train the Army and Air Force, and British equipment predominated in the ground forces.{{sfn|Ofcansky|2015|p=344}} There were 50 [[Alvis Saladin]]s, 60 [[Ferret armoured car]]s, and 45 Commando armoured cars, about 50 25-pounders, 40 105-mm howitzers, 20 120-mm mortars, and 80 Bofors 40-mm guns.

On 25 May 1969, several young officers, led by Colonel [[Jaafar Nimeiry]], seized power in a [[1969 Sudanese coup d'état|military coup]], thus bringing the army into political control for the second time. From 1969 until 1971, a military government – the [[National Revolutionary Command Council (Sudan)|National Revolutionary Command Council]], composed of nine young officers and one civilian – exercised authority over a largely civilian cabinet.{{sfn|Metz|1992|p=235}} The council represented only a faction within the military establishment. From 1971 Nimeiri led a more civilian-based government. The first civil war ended in a negotiated settlement in 1973 by General Ismail. Sudan sent a brigade with infantry and supporting elements to the Sinai peninsula as a reinforcement to the Egyptian forces during the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]].{{sfn|Robinson|2022|page=25}} It arrived too late, on 28 October 1973 and saw no fighting.

Diplomatic and military relations with Britain and other Western nations were broken after the June 1967 Arab–Israeli War, and the breach was filled by close military cooperation with the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Ofcansky|2015|p=344}} Soviet assistance coincided with a dramatic expansion in Sudan Armed Forces personnel from 18,000 in 1966 to nearly 50,000 by 1972.{{sfn|Ofcansky|2015|p=344}} The bulk of the equipment used by the ground and air forces throughout the 1970s until the early 1980s was of Soviet manufacture, including tanks, artillery, and MiG combat aircraft.

The [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] broke out again in 1983 and continued until 2005. The Armed Forces operated under the authority of the People's Armed Forces Act 1986.<ref>UNMIS, [http://unmis.unmissions.org/Portals/UNMIS/CPA%20Monitor/Annexes/Annex%2019%20-%20JIUs%20Act%20-%20FIXED.pdf Joint Integrated Units Act] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104050/http://unmis.unmissions.org/Portals/UNMIS/CPA%20Monitor/Annexes/Annex%2019%20-%20JIUs%20Act%20-%20FIXED.pdf |date=18 July 2011}}</ref>

=== Al-Bashir era ===
By the time of the [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|coup in 1989]], over fifty percent of most Army units were staffed by soldiers and NCOs from the South. Most had little commitment or dedication to the government – they joined for the sugar and other rations given to soldiers, as well as the salary. Although they often acquitted themselves well in battle, generally surrendering only when their food and ammunition were depleted, they had little stomach for offensive operations. Under President [[Omar al-Bashir]] who seized power in the 1989 coup, armed forces under the government of Sudan included the Land Forces, the Sudanese Navy, the [[Sudanese Air Force]], and the [[Popular Defence Forces]], which were formed in 1989.

The Land Forces were "basically a light infantry force in 1991, supported by specialized elements.{{nbsp}}... [C]ontrol extended from the headquarters of the general staff in Khartoum to the six regional commands (central, eastern, western, northern, southern, and Khartoum). Each regional command was organized along divisional lines. Thus, the [[5th Division (Sudan)|Fifth Division]] was at [[al-Ubayyid]] in [[Kurdufan]] (Central Command), the [[2nd Division (Sudan)|Second Division]] was at [[Khashm El Girba]] (Eastern Command), the [[6th Division (Sudan)|Sixth Division]] was assigned to [[al-Fashir]] in [[Darfur]] (Western Command), the [[1st Division (Sudan)|First Division]] was at [[Juba, Southern Sudan|Juba]] (Southern Command), and the [[7th Armoured Division (Sudan)|Seventh Armoured Division]] was at [[As Shajarah]] just south of [[Khartoum]] (Khartoum Command). The [[9th Airborne Division (Sudan)|Airborne Division]] was based at [[Khartoum International Airport]]. The [[3rd Division (Sudan)|Third Division]] was located in the north, although no major troop units were assigned to it. Each division had a liaison officer attached to general headquarters in Khartoum to facilitate the division's communication with various command elements. This organisational structure did not provide an accurate picture of actual troop deployments. All of the divisions were understrength. The Sixth Division in Darfur was a reorganised brigade with only 2,500 personnel. Unit strengths varied widely. Most brigades were composed of 1,000 to 1,500 troops."{{sfn|Metz|1992|p=245}} Keegan, writing in 1983, indicated that the northern command was located at [[Shendi]].

To reduce the pressure on the regular armed forces, the Sudanese government made extensive use of militias, such as the [[South Sudan Defence Forces]]. This largely symbolic coalition of seven groups was formed with the signing of the [[Khartoum Peace Agreement of 1997|Khartoum Peace Agreement]] with the NIF in 1997. The SSDF was led by former Garang lieutenant [[Riek Machar]].{{sfn|McEvoy|LeBrun|2010|p=13}}

In 2004, the [[Federal Research Division]] of the [[Library of Congress]] estimated that the Popular Defence Forces, the military wing of the [[National Islamic Front]], consisted of 10,000 active members, with 85,000 reserves.{{sfn|Library of Congress|2004}} The Popular Defence Forces were deployed alongside regular army units against various rebel groups. In 2005, in accordance with the provisions of the Naivasha [[Comprehensive Peace Accord]], Joint Integrated Units were formed together with the rebels of the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]]. In this regard, Afdevinfo did report that the 1st Division at Juba had been disbanded.
[[File:Flag of the Sudanese 9th Airborne Division.svg|thumb|right|Flag of the 9th Airborne Division]]
In 2007 the [[IISS]] estimated that the SAF had 104,800 personnel supported by 17,500 paramilitary personnel.{{sfn|IISS|2007|p=293}} [[Jane's Information Group]] said in May 2009 that 'There are a number of infantry divisions, divided among [the six] regional commands. The commander of each military region traditionally commanded the divisional and brigade commanders within his territory. It is understood that there are six infantry divisions and seven independent infantry brigades; a mechanised division and an independent mechanised infantry brigade; and an armoured division. Other elements are understood to include a Special Forces battalion with five companies; an airborne division and a border guard brigade. Support elements include an engineer division.' Jane's reported the army's strength as 100,000 plus militias.<ref>Jane's World Armies, [[Jane's Information Group]], May 2009.</ref>

Jane's Sentinel reports that there are two engineer brigades supporting the 9th Airborne Division. Jane's Amphibious and Special Forces, 2010, listed the 9th Airborne Division headquartered in Khartoum which includes two airborne brigades and the 144th Special Forces Battalion, an anti-terrorist unit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Amphibious-and-Special-Forces/Special-Forces-Land-Sudan.html,|title=Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]]|access-date=23 February 2015}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> It also mentioned the two engineer brigades for special forces support. The 9th Airborne Division carried out projects north of the capital in 2022;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.suna-sd.net/read?id=733916 |title=الفرقة التاسعة المحمولة جوا تنفذمشروع طابور السير |access-date=15 December 2022 |archive-date=15 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215144612/https://www.suna-sd.net/read?id=733916 |url-status=dead }}</ref> in January 2022 it confronted demonstrators in [[Omdurman]]. In 2010 it was reported that a Republican Guard existed as a presidential security unit, led by Major General Khalid Hamad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forums.sudaneseonline.org/cs/blogs/english/archive/2010/01/01/republican-palace-celebrates-the-change-of-the-republican-guard.aspx|title=Republican Palace celebrates the change of the Republican Guard|date=1 January 2010|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=8 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808055137/http://forums.sudaneseonline.org/cs/blogs/english/archive/2010/01/01/republican-palace-celebrates-the-change-of-the-republican-guard.aspx|url-status=dead}} Sudanese Online.</ref>

The SAF and government-aligned militias have fought in the [[Second Sudanese Civil War|Sudanese Civil War]], the [[Darfur Conflict]], the [[Sudan–SPLM-N conflict]] and the [[2012 South Sudan-Sudan border conflict]]. As part of the [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)|Yemeni Civil War]], dozens of Sudanese soldiers were reported killed in an ambush by [[Houthis]] in [[Hajjah Governorate]] in April 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20180407-rebels-kill-dozens-sudanese-troops-yemen-military-sources|title=Rebels kill dozens of Sudanese troops in Yemen: military sources|date=7 April 2018|website=France 24}}</ref>

=== Joint Integrated Units (2005–2011) ===
The 2005 [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement]] which ended the second civil war, stated that "...{{nbsp}}there shall be formed Joint/Integrated Units during the Pre-Interim and Interim Period from the SAF and the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA).{{nbsp}}... These shall form the nucleus of the future Sudanese National Armed Forces, should the result of the referendum{{nbsp}}... confirm unity of the country, [otherwise] the JIUs shall dissolve with each component reverting to its mother Armed Forces."<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter VI, Security Arrangements, paragraphs 20.1 and 20.2|url=https://unmis.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/old_dnn/cpa-en.pdf|page=111 (129 of 260)}}</ref>

The JIUs were to consist of: (Chapter VI, Security Arrangements, Paragraphs 20.13.2.1 and 20.13.2.2)
*1st Infantry Division which shall have a total strength of 9000 officers, NCOs, and men and shall be deployed in Equatoria area
*2nd Infantry Division which shall have a total strength of 8000 officers, NCOs, and men and shall be deployed in Upper Nile area
*3rd Infantry Division which shall have a total strength of 7000 officers, NCOs, and men and shall be deployed in Bahr El Ghazal area
*4th Infantry Division (unlike the other divisions, both 4th and 5th Divisions are under-strength divisions) which shall have a total strength of 6000 officers, NCOs, and men and shall be deployed in southern [[Blue Nile]] area
*5th Infantry Division which shall have a total strength of 6000 officers, NCOs, and men and shall be deployed in Southern Kordofan/Nuba Mountains
*Independent Brigade which shall be deployed in Khartoum with the total strength of 3000 officers, NCOs, and men
*There shall be formed a JIU Infantry Battalion for Abyei Area

According to the Catholic "Voice of Hope" radio station in Wau, the Salam Forces military of Major-General [[Eltom Elnur Daldoum]], who has a [[Messiria tribe|Misseriya]] background{{sfn|Young|2006|page=35}} and operated in the [[Deim Zubeir]] area,<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/137173/MilitiasRebelsIslamistMilitants%20(Nov2010).pdf|title=Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants – Human Insecurity and State Crises in Africa|last=Wassara|first=Samson|publisher=ISS|year=2010|editor-last=Okumu|editor-first=Wafula|location=Tshwane|page=277|chapter=Rebels, militias and governance in Sudan}}</ref> joined the Sudan Armed Forces and became part of the Joint Integrated Units in Wau during the interim period.<ref name=":21">{{Cite news|url=http://catholicradionetwork.org/?q=node/7853|title=SALAM MILITIA FORCES JOIN SPLA IN WAU|date=13 September 2012|work=Catholic Radio Network|access-date=12 January 2018}}</ref> The number of his fighters was estimated at 400.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2008|title=Allies and defectors – An update on armed group integration and proxy force activity|url=http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org/fileadmin/docs/issue-briefs/HSBA-IB-11-allies-defectors.pdf|journal=Sudan Issue Brief|volume=11|access-date=3 May 2019|archive-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324152741/http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org/fileadmin/docs/issue-briefs/HSBA-IB-11-allies-defectors.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After its formation, the Joint Defence Board (JDB) met for the first time in January 2006. The Board was jointly chaired by SAF and SPLA lieutenant generals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/sudan-comprehensive-peace-agreement|title=Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement – Peace Accords Matrix|website=peaceaccords.nd.edu}}</ref> The National Assembly passed the Joint Integrated Units Act on 17 January 2006. The JIUs were commanded by SPLA Major General [[Thomas Cirillo Swaka]]. But in the face of high hopes, the three most serious breaches of the CPA's permanent ceasefire resulted directly from the actions of JIU battalions and brigades.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/ssr_issue_no2_0.pdf|title=Sudan's Aspirational Army: A History of the Joint Integrated Units|first=Aly|last=Verjee|page=4}}</ref> North/South distrust resulted in the JDB struggling to providing oversight and management of the JIUs.

With the dissolution of the JIUs following the [[Southern Sudanese independence referendum, 2011]], the SPLA components were either integrated back into the SPLA or demobilised. The SPLA components however were seen as less of a concern than the SAF components. Many of the SAF JIU personnel were former militia ('Other Armed Groups' or OAGs) who were 'aligned' rather than being formally 'incorporated' within the Sudanese Army.{{sfn|Rands|2010|p=23}} 'Aside from regular SAF units in locations such as [[Malakal]] and [[Bor, South Sudan|Bor]], many of the SAF elements of the JIUs hail from the areas where they are serving and have strong family ties in these locations. As with the SPLA components, integration into the SPLA or increased incentives to demobilize are the only options the SAF components are likely to consider—movement north being out of the question.'

=== After al-Bashir's fall (2019–2023) ===
On 11 April 2019, the Sudanese Armed Forces launched a [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|coup]] against [[Omar al-Bashir]] after months of protests against his rule.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/11/africa/sudan-unrest-intl/ |first1= Sarah |first2=Nima |first3= Yasir |last1= El Sirgany |last2= Elbagir |last3= Abdullah |title= Sudan's President Bashir forced out in military coup |date= 11 April 2019 |publisher= [[CNN]] |access-date= 16 April 2021}}</ref> On 3 June 2019, the Sudanese Armed Forces, led by the Rapid Support Forces carried out the [[Khartoum massacre]], leaving over 128 people dead.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Declan |title=Sudan Power-Sharing Deal Reached by Military and Civilian Leaders |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/04/world/africa/sudan-power-sharing-deal.html |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=4 July 2019}}</ref>

Article 10.(a) of the [[2019 Sudanese transition to democracy|August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration]] states that the mixed civilian–military "[[Sovereignty Council of Sudan|Sovereignty Council]] is the head of state, the symbol of its sovereignty and unity, and the Supreme Commander of the armed forces, [[Rapid Support Forces]], and other uniformed forces." Article 34.(a) states that the "armed forces and Rapid Support Forces are a national military institution that protect the unity and sovereignty of the nation" and Article 34.(b) states that the relationship between the military institution and executive authority is to be organised by the "Armed Forces Law and the Rapid Support Forces Law".<ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019" /><ref name="Const_Dec_En" />

On 28 October 2019, the chair of the Sovereignty Council, [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], issued a decree appointing a new military top-level command, called the ''General Staff'', including Lt. Gen. Mohamed Osmana al-Hassan as Chief of General Staff; Lt. Gen. Abdallah al-Matari Hamid, Inspector General of the Armed Forces; several Deputy Chiefs of Staff; Lt. Gen. Essam Mohamed-Hassan Karar as commander-in-chief of the land forces; Rear Admiral Mahjoub Bushra Ahmed Rahma as commander of the naval forces; Lt. Gen. Essam al-Din Said Koko as commander-in-chief of the Air Force; and Major General Abdel Khair Abdallah Nasser Darjam as Commander of the Air Defence Forces. ''[[Sudan Tribune]]'' interpreted the changes in military leadership as a strategy by al-Burhan to "tighten his grip on the army after the removal of Islamist generals."<ref name="SudTrib_military_command" />

=== Sudanese Civil War (2023–present) ===
Since the outbreak of the [[Sudanese civil war (2023–present)|Sudanese Civil War]], the armed forces have garnered increasing popular support against the [[Rapid Support Forces]] from the Sudanese population, even from the staunchest critics of the military. The conflict has also deepened the SAF's reliance on [[Islamism|Islamist]] networks, which have mobilized civilians through [[Popular Resistance of Sudan|popular resistance brigades]]. The [[al-Bara' ibn Malik Battalion]] in particular has been supporting the SAF on the [[Khartoum]] front lines.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brachet |first=Eliott |date=2024-11-17 |title=The lost children of Sudan's revolution: 'We fight today alongside the men who fought us yesterday' |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2024/11/17/the-lost-children-of-sudan-s-revolution-we-fight-today-alongside-the-men-who-fought-us-yesterday_6733111_124.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-11-18 |work=[[Le Monde]] |language=en}}</ref>