Editing Stilicho (section)

== Origins and rise to power ==
Besides the relevant legal records in the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'', the major primary source for the events of Stilicho's reign, or at least events prior to 404, are the [[panegyric]]s addressed to him by the poet [[Claudian]], whom he patronized after the death of Theodosius I.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grig |first1=Lucy |title=Two Romes: Rome and Constantinople in Late Antiquity |last2=Kelly |first2=Gavin |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973940-0 |location=Oxford |pages=279 |language=en}}</ref> These are likely quite biased and portray Stilicho in a positive light. For events after 404, [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] is the main source; he derived his information on Stilicho from two prior historians, whose texts he copies faithfully, although in summary. One of these historians, [[Eunapius]], was hostile to Stilicho, and the other, [[Olympiodorus of Thebes|Olympiodorus]], was supportive, resulting in a bit of a garbled, contradictory account. Stilicho also maintained correspondence with his friend, the renowned pagan senator [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus|Symmachus]].

Stilicho<ref>''Stilic(h)o'' is a given name of Germanic origin, containing the Germanic element ''stil(l)'' –  meaning "calm, quiet", from Proto-Germanic [[:wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/stillijaz|*''stillijaz'']].</ref> was the son of a [[Vandals|Vandal]] cavalry officer and a provincial woman of Roman birth.<ref>Frasetto, Michael (2003). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yW-GfElbafQC Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation]''. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|1576072630}}, p. 320. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yW-GfElbafQC&dq=stilicho+vandal+father&pg=PA320 Google Books].</ref> Despite his father's origins, there is little to suggest that Stilicho considered himself anything other than a Roman, and his high rank within the empire suggests that he was probably not an [[Arianism|Arian]] like many Germanic Christians but rather a [[Nicene Christianity|Nicene Christian]] like his patron [[Theodosius I]], who declared Nicene Christianity the official religion of the empire.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=220}}

Stilicho joined the Roman army and rose through the ranks during the reign of Theodosius I, who ruled the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern half]] of the Roman Empire from Constantinople, and who was to become the last emperor to rule both the eastern and [[Western Roman Empire|western]] halves of the empire jointly. In 383, Theodosius sent him as a ''tribunus praetorianus'', an office in the branch of military administrators known as the ''notarii,'' on an embassy mission to the court of the Persian King [[Shapur III]] in [[Ctesiphon]] to negotiate a peace settlement relating to [[Peace of Acilisene|the partition of Armenia]].<ref>Williams, S., Friell, G. ''Theodosius, The Empire at Bay''. 1994. p 41</ref> Historians have a difficult time explaining exactly what led to his marriage to Serena which occurred after his return to Constantinople at the successful conclusion of peace talks.<ref name=":1">Bendle 2024, 167.</ref> Claudian claims that Theodosius awarded Stilicho with Serena’s hand because of his outstanding achievements, but as Stilicho was actually just a junior member of the embassy and not its leader, nor had he done anything else of note, this is certainly panegyrical publicity. Perhaps the varied duties of the ''notarii'' at some point placed Stilicho inside the imperial residence of Constantinople where he encountered Serena and they decided the match themselves, or maybe Theodosius saw a good outcome in tying a young, up-and-coming, half-barbarian general to the imperial household. The marriage would see the birth of a son, who was named [[Eucherius (son of Stilicho)|Eucherius]], and two daughters, [[Maria, daughter of Stilicho|Maria]] and [[Thermantia]].<ref name=":1" />

Whatever its origin, this match undoubtedly raised Stilicho's prospects. He was promoted to [[Count of the Stable|''comes sacri stabuli'']] and soon after to ''[[comes domesticorum]]'' in 385. It is unclear whether he participated in the campaign against [[Magnus Maximus]] or remained in Constantinople during that time. In 392 or 393, Theodosius promoted Stilicho to [[Magister militum|''comes et magister utriusque militiae'']] and gave him command of soldiers in Thrace.<ref>Hughes, Ian, ''Stilicho'', p. 21; Bendle 2024, 113; ''Codex Theodosianus'', 7.9.3.</ref>

After the death of the Western emperor [[Valentinian II]] in 392, Theodosius appointed Stilicho as co-commander of the army with [[Timasius]].<ref>Bendle 2024, 119.</ref> They were victorious over the Western army at the [[Battle of the Frigidus]]. One of his comrades during the campaign was the [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] warlord [[Alaric I|Alaric]], who commanded a substantial number of Gothic auxiliaries. Alaric would go on to become Stilicho's chief adversary during his later career as the head of the Western Roman armies. Stilicho distinguished himself at the Frigidus, and Theodosius, exhausted by the campaign, saw him as a man worthy of responsibility for the future safety of the empire. In several of the Claudian poems celebrating Theodosius's victories, Stilicho's participation and contribution to the campaign were highlighted.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bernstein |first=Neil W. |title=The Complete Works of Claudian: Translated with an Introduction and Notes |publisher=Routledge |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-000-82182-6 |location=Oxon |language=en}}</ref> This helped him gain popularity in the empire.<ref name=":0" /> The last emperor of a united Rome appointed Stilicho guardian of his son [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]], with the rank of ''comes et magister utriusque militiae praesentalis'' (supreme commander), shortly before his death in 395.<ref>Randers-Pehrson, Justine Davis. ''[[iarchive:barbariansromans0000rand m7c1|Barbarians and Romans: The Birth Struggle of Europe, A.D. 400–700]]''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. pp. 78–81 {{ISBN|978-080-612-511-4}}</ref>

At the time of Theodosius's death, the field armies that had clashed at the Frigidus were still in disarray and fighting was still continuing. [[Claudian]], Stilicho's panegyrist, makes Theodosius's spirit say "When I was raised to heaven disorder... and tumult did I leave behind me. The army was still drawing the forbidden sword in that Alpine war, and conquerors and conquered gave alternate cause for dissension. Scarce could this madness have been calmed by my vigilance, much less by a boy's rule... 'Twas then that Stilicho took my place..."<ref>De Bello Gildonico ''The War Against Gildo.'' [[Claudian]]. Loeb Classical Library, 1922. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Claudian/De_Bello_Gildonico*.html accessed 28 Sept 2020</ref>