Editing Stanisław Ulam (section)

==Poland==
Ulam was born in [[Lviv#Habsburg Empire|Lemberg]], [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], on 13 April 1909.<ref name="CHAR 78" /><ref name='NYTIMES-OBIT' /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Stanislaw Ulam {{!}} Biography, Facts, & Spiral|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Stanislaw-Ulam|access-date=2021-04-11|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> At this time, Galicia was in the [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], which was known to Poles as the [[Austrian partition]]. In 1918, it became part of the newly restored Poland, the [[Second Polish Republic]], and the city took its Polish name again, [[Lviv#Interwar period|Lwów]].<ref name="ULAM 9-15"/>

The Ulams were a wealthy [[Polish Jewish]] family of bankers, industrialists, and other professionals. Ulam's immediate family was "well-to-do but hardly rich".<ref name='AULAM'/> His father, Józef Ulam, was born in Lwów and was a lawyer,<ref name="ULAM 9-15"/> and his mother, Anna (née Auerbach), was born in [[Stryi|Stryj]].<ref name='FAMILY'/> His uncle, Michał Ulam, was an architect, building contractor, and lumber industrialist.<ref name='MIKE'/> From 1916 until 1918, Józef's family lived temporarily in [[Vienna]].<ref name='VITA'/> After they returned, Lwów became the epicenter of the [[Polish–Ukrainian War]], during which the city experienced [[Battle of Lemberg (1918)|a Ukrainian siege]].<ref name="ULAM 9-15"/>

[[File:Lwow - Kawiarnia Szkocka.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=Picture of the building that used to house the Scottish Café|The [[Scottish Café]]'s building in [[Lviv]], Ukraine now houses the Szkocka Restaurant & Bar (named for the original Scottish Café).]]
In 1919, Ulam entered Lwów Gymnasium Nr. VII, from which he graduated in 1927.<ref name='AJMAA'/> He then studied mathematics at the Lwów Polytechnic Institute. Under the supervision of [[Kazimierz Kuratowski]], he received his [[Master of Arts]] degree in 1932, and became a [[Doctor of Science#Poland|Doctor of Science]] in 1933.<ref name='VITA'/><ref name=zwoje/> At the age of 20, in 1929, he published his first paper ''Concerning Function of Sets'' in the journal ''[[Fundamenta Mathematicae]]''.<ref name=zwoje>{{cite journal|author=Andrzej M. Kobos|title=Mędrzec większy niż życie|trans-title=A Sage Greater Than Life|language=pl|journal=Zwoje|volume=3|number=16|year=1999|access-date=10 May 2013|url=http://www.zwoje-scrolls.com/zwoje16/text03.htm|archive-date=6 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306182319/http://www.zwoje-scrolls.com/zwoje16/text03.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> From 1931 until 1935, he traveled to and studied in [[Wilno]] (Vilnius), Vienna, [[Zürich]], [[Paris]], and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge, England]], where he met [[G. H. Hardy]] and [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]].<ref name="ULAM 56-60"/>

Along with [[Stanisław Mazur]], [[Mark Kac]], [[Włodzimierz Stożek]], Kuratowski, and others, Ulam was a member of the [[Lwów School of Mathematics]]. Its founders were [[Hugo Steinhaus]] and [[Stefan Banach]], who were professors at the [[University of Lviv#Jan Kazimierz University (1919–39)|Jan Kazimierz University]]. Mathematicians of this "school" met for long hours at the [[Scottish Café]], where the problems they discussed were collected in the [[Scottish Book]], a thick notebook provided by Banach's wife. Ulam was a major contributor to the book. Of the 193 problems recorded between 1935 and 1941, he contributed 40 problems as a single author, another 11 with Banach and Mazur, and an additional 15 with others. In 1957, he received from Steinhaus a copy of the book, which had survived the war, and translated it into English.<ref name='BOOK'/> In 1981, Ulam's friend R. Daniel Mauldin published an expanded and annotated version.<ref name='MAULDIN'/>