Editing Space weather (section)

==History==
For many centuries, the effects of space weather were noticed, but not understood. Displays of [[aurora (astronomy)|auroral]] light have long been observed at high latitudes.

=== Beginnings ===
In 1724, [[George Graham (clockmaker)|George Graham]] reported that the needle of a [[magnetic compass]] was regularly deflected from [[magnetic north]] over the course of each day. This effect was eventually attributed to overhead electric currents flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere by [[Balfour Stewart]] in 1882, and confirmed by [[Arthur Schuster]] in 1889 from analysis of magnetic observatory data.

In 1852, astronomer and British Major General [[Edward Sabine]] showed that the probability of the occurrence of [[geomagnetic storm]]s on Earth was correlated with the number of [[sunspots]], demonstrating a novel solar-terrestrial interaction. The [[solar storm of 1859]] caused brilliant auroral displays and disrupted global [[telegraph]] operations. [[Richard Christopher Carrington|Richard Carrington]] correctly connected the storm with a [[solar flare]] that he had observed the day before near a large sunspot group, demonstrating that specific solar events could affect the Earth.

[[Kristian Birkeland]] explained the physics of aurorae by creating artificial ones in his laboratory, and predicted the solar wind.

The introduction of radio revealed that solar weather could cause extreme static or noise. [[Radar jamming]] during a large solar event in 1942 led to the discovery of solar radio bursts, radio waves over a broad frequency range created by a solar flare.

=== The 20th century ===
In the 20th century, the interest in space weather expanded as military and commercial systems came to depend on systems affected by space weather. [[Communications satellites]] are a vital part of global commerce. [[Weather satellite]] systems provide information about terrestrial weather. The signals from satellites of a [[global positioning system]] (GPS) are used in a wide variety of applications. Space weather phenomena can interfere with or damage these satellites or interfere with the radio signals with which they operate. Space weather phenomena can cause damaging surges in long-distance [[Overhead power line|transmission lines]] and expose passengers and crew of aircraft travel to [[radiation]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fisher | first1 = Genene M | title = ''Integrating Space Weather and Meteorological Products for Aviation'', (2003) | journal = Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. | volume = 84 | issue = 11| pages = 1519–1523 | doi = 10.1175/BAMS-84-11-1519 | bibcode = 2003BAMS...84.1519F | year = 2003 | doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Meier | first1 = Matthias M | last2 = Hubiak | first2 = Melina | year = 2010 | title = Measurements of the radiation quality factor Q at aviation altitudes during solar minimum (2006–2008) | journal = Adv. Space Res. | volume = 45 | issue = 9| pages = 1178–1181 | doi=10.1016/j.asr.2009.08.008| bibcode = 2010AdSpR..45.1178M }}</ref> especially on polar routes.

The [[International Geophysical Year]] <!-- (IGY) --> increased research into space weather. Ground-based data obtained during IGY demonstrated that the aurorae occurred in an ''auroral oval'', a permanent region of luminescence 15 to 25° in latitude from the magnetic poles and 5 to 20° wide.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Feldstein | first1 = Y. I. | year = 1986 | title = A Quarter Century with the Auroral Oval, Eos | journal = Trans. Am. Geophys. Union | volume = 67 | issue = 40| page = 761 | doi=10.1029/eo067i040p00761-02| bibcode = 1986EOSTr..67..761F}}</ref> In 1958, the [[Explorer I]] satellite discovered the [[Van Allen radiation belt|Van Allen belts]],<ref>Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Launch of the Space Race. (Toronto: MacFarlane Walter & Ross, 2001), 190.</ref> regions of radiation particles trapped by the Earth's magnetic field. In January 1959, the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[satellite]] [[Luna 1]] first directly observed the solar wind and measured its strength. A smaller [[International Heliophysical Year]] (IHY) occurred in 2007–2008.

In 1969,'' INJUN-5'' (or ''Explorer 40''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1968-066B |title=NASA NSSDC INJUN-5 page |access-date=2019-01-13 }}</ref>) made the first direct observation of the electric field impressed on the Earth's high-latitude ionosphere by the solar wind.<ref>Cauffman, D., and D. Gurnett (1971), Double-Probe Measurements of Convection Electric Fields with the Injun-5 Satellite, J. Geophys. Res., 76(25), 6014-6027</ref> In the early 1970s, Triad data demonstrated that permanent electric currents flowed between the auroral oval and the magnetosphere.<ref>A. J. Zmuda and J. C. Armstrong, ''The Diurnal Flow Pattern of Field-Aligned Currents'', J. Geophys. Res., 79, 31, 4611pp, 1974</ref>

The term "space weather" came into usage in the late 1950s as the space age began and satellites began to measure the [[space environment]].<ref name="origin"/> The term regained popularity in the 1990s along with the belief that space's impact on human systems demanded a more coordinated research and application framework.<ref name="nas1997">{{Cite book|title = Space Weather: A Research Perspective {{!}} The National Academies Press|url = http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12272|access-date = 2015-07-24 |publisher=National Academy of Science |year=1997 |quote=Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the solar system |doi = 10.17226/12272|isbn = 978-0-309-12237-5}}</ref>