Editing South America (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of South America}}

===Prehistory===
{{Further|History of South America#Pre-Columbian era}}

[[File:SantaCruz-CuevaManos-P2210651b.jpg|thumb|The prehistoric [[Cueva de las Manos]], or "Cave of the Hands", in Argentina]]
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing the [[Bering Land Bridge]] (now the [[Bering Strait]]) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the [[Isthmus of Panama]].

Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the [[Monte Verde|Monte Verde II]] site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pino|first1=Mario|last2=Dillehay|first2=Tom D.|date=May 2023|title=Monte Verde II: an assessment of new radiocarbon dates and their sedimentological context|journal=Antiquity|volume=97|issue=393|pages=524–540|doi=10.15184/aqy.2023.32|s2cid=257854108|issn=0003-598X|doi-access=free}}</ref> From around 13,000 years ago, the [[Fishtail projectile point]] style became widespread across South America, with its disappearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Prates|first1=Luciano|last2=Perez|first2=S. Ivan|date=2021-04-12|title=Late Pleistocene South American megafaunal extinctions associated with rise of Fishtail points and human population|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=1|page=2175|doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22506-4|issn=2041-1723|pmc=8041891|pmid=33846353|bibcode=2021NatCo..12.2175P}}</ref> Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pagán-Jiménez|first1=Jaime R.|last2=Rodríguez-Ramos|first2=Reniel|last3=Reid|first3=Basil A.|last4=van den Bel|first4=Martijn|last5=Hofman|first5=Corinne L.|date=September 2015|title=Early dispersals of maize and other food plants into the Southern Caribbean and Northeastern South America|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379115300445|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=123|pages=231–246|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.07.005|bibcode=2015QSRv..123..231P}}</ref>

By 2000 BC, many [[agrarian society|agrarian]] communities had been settled throughout the [[Andes]] and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an [[agrarian society]].<ref name="OBrienP-Oxford_Atlas">O'Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 25.</ref>

South American cultures began domesticating [[llama]]s and [[alpaca]]s in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods.<ref name="OBrienP-Oxford_Atlas"/>

===Pre-Columbian civilizations===
{{Main|Pre-Columbian era#South America}}

[[File:Machu Picchu, Perú, 2015-07-30, DD 39.JPG|alt=|thumb|The Inca estate of [[Machu Picchu]], [[Peru]], is one of the [[New Seven Wonders of the World#Winners|New Seven Wonders of the World]].]]

The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America.

One of the earliest known South American civilizations was [[Caral–Supe]], on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, at [[Huaricanga]] in the [[Fortaleza River (Peru)|Fortaleza]] area, contemporaneous with the pyramids of [[Ancient Egypt]], one of the [[Cradle of civilization|oldest-known civilizations]] in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.<ref name="AncientAndes">{{cite news|title=The Ancient Andes|url=https://historyguild.org/the-ancient-andes/|access-date=2 April 2023|publisher=History Guild}}</ref> Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by [[Chavín]] by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called [[Chavín de Huantar]] in modern Peru at an elevation of {{convert|3177|m|sp=us||}}. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.

In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] (100 BC&nbsp;– 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), [[Paracas culture|Paracas]] and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]] (400 BC&nbsp;– 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through [[irrigation]] and new styles of ceramic art. At the [[Altiplano]], Tiahuanaco or [[Tiwanaku]] (100 BC&nbsp;– 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion.

Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or [[Wari culture|Huari]] Empire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography.

The [[Muisca]] were the main indigenous civilization in what is now Colombia. They established the [[Muisca Confederation]] of many clans, or ''[[cacique|cacicazgos]]'', that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers.

Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: the [[Cañari]]s (in south central Ecuador), [[Chimú Empire]] (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), [[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoyas]], and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru).
Holding their capital at the great city of [[Cusco]], the [[Inca civilization]] dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as ''Tawantin suyu'', and "the land of the four regions", in [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], the [[Inca Empire]] was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer [[Inca road system|road system]]. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. [[Terrace farming]] was a useful form of agriculture.

The [[Mapuche]] in Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging the [[Arauco War]] for more than 300 years.
{{Clear}}

===European colonization===
{{Main|Spanish colonization of the Americas|Portuguese colonization of the Americas}}

[[File:Desembarque de Pedro Álvares Cabral em Porto Seguro em 1500 by Oscar Pereira da Silva (1865–1939).jpg|thumb|The Portuguese explorer [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landing in Brazil in 1500]]

In 1494, [[Portugal]] and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive [[duopoly]] between the two countries.<ref>Horst Pietschmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z8ZnAAAAMAAJ&q=Julius+II+ratified+tordesillas+1505 Atlantic history : history of the Atlantic System 1580–1830], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518225523/https://books.google.it/books?id=z8ZnAAAAMAAJ&q=Julius+II+ratified+tordesillas+1505&dq=Julius+II+ratified+tordesillas+1505&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjBsojxkrzlAhWN2aQKHcY6BhEQ6AEINTAC|date=18 May 2021}}'', Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002, p. 239.</ref>

[[File:Inca-Spanish confrontation.JPG|thumb|The [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Inca–Spanish confrontation]] in the [[Battle of Cajamarca]] left thousands of natives dead.]]

The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]] 370 [[League (unit)|leagues]] (approximately {{convert|1110|mi|km|abbr=on}}) west of the [[Cape Verde Islands]], roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of [[longitude]] were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese expansion of Brazil]] across the meridian.

Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign [[conquistadors]], first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.

European infectious diseases ([[smallpox]], [[influenza]], [[measles]], and [[typhus]]) – to which the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native populations]] had no immune resistance&nbsp;– caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the [[hacienda]]s and mining industry's [[mit'a]] also contributed to the depopulation. After this, [[enslaved Africans]], who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.

[[File:Imperios Español y Portugués 1790.svg|thumb|An interpretation of the extent of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas in 1790]]

The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended [[Catholicism]] with their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman [[Catholic Church]]'s evangelization in [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]] actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form.

Eventually, the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|natives]] and the Spaniards interbred, forming a [[mestizo]] class. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers.

Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American.

[[Guyana]] was initially [[Dutch colonisation of the Guianas|colonized by the Dutch]] before coming under [[British Guiana|British control]], though there was a brief period during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] when it was occupied by the [[First French Empire|French]]. The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain.

Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and then [[Surinam (English colony)|settled by the English]] in the mid-17th century. It became a [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Dutch colony]] in 1667.<ref>{{cite book |author=Boxer |first=C. R. |author-link=C. R. Boxer |title=The Dutch Seaborne Empire |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0140136180 |pages=271–272}}</ref>

===Slavery===
{{See also|European enslavement of Indigenous Americans|Atlantic slave trade}}
[[File:Johann Moritz Rugendas in Brazil 2.jpg|thumb|Public flogging of a slave in 19th-century Brazil]]
{{Slavery}}

The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The slave trade brought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502.<ref>Anstey, Roger: ''The Atlantic Slave Trade and British abolition, 1760–1810''. London: Macmillan, 1975, p. 5.</ref> The main destinations of this phase were the [[Caribbean]] colonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the [[New World]]. Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vergonha Ainda Maior: Novas informações disponíveis em um enorme banco de dados mostram que a escravidão no Brasil foi muito pior do que se sabia antes (|url=http://veja.abril.com.br/blog/ricardo-setti/tema-livre/vergonha-ainda-maior-novas-informacoes-disponiveis-em-um-enorme-banco-de-dados-mostram-que-a-escravidao-no-brasil-foi-muito-pior-do-que-se-sabia-antes/|website=Veja|access-date=16 March 2015|language=pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313000755/http://veja.abril.com.br/blog/ricardo-setti/tema-livre/vergonha-ainda-maior-novas-informacoes-disponiveis-em-um-enorme-banco-de-dados-mostram-que-a-escravidao-no-brasil-foi-muito-pior-do-que-se-sabia-antes/|archive-date=13 March 2015}}</ref><ref>[[Stephen D. Behrendt]], David Richardson, and David Eltis, [[W. E. B. Du Bois Institute|W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research]], [[Harvard University]]. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". {{cite book|last=Stephen Behrendt|title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience|year=1999|publisher=Basic Civitas Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-465-00071-5|chapter=Transatlantic Slave Trade|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi}}</ref>

In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750, the [[Portuguese Crown]] abolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples in [[colonial Brazil]], under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas on [[slave ship]]s, under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold in [[slave market]]s.<ref name=Yeager1995>{{cite journal|last1=Yeager|first1=Timothy J.|title=Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labor Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America|journal=The Journal of Economic History|date=December 1995|volume=55|issue=4|pages=842–859|doi=10.1017/S0022050700042182|s2cid=155030781}}</ref> After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery.<ref name="c">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of emancipation and abolition in the Transatlantic world|title=The 'Golden Law' Abolishing Slavery in Brazil|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|location=London, United Kingdom}}</ref>

===Independence from Spain and Portugal===
{{Main|Spanish American wars of independence|Independence of Brazil}}

The European [[Peninsular War]] (1807–14), a theater of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], changed the political situation of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the [[House of Braganza]] avoided capture by [[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|escaping to Brazil]]. Napoleon captured King [[Ferdinand VII]] of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which created [[Junta (Peninsular War)|Juntas]] to rule in the name of the captured king.

[[File:Coroaçao pedro I 001.jpg|thumb|Coronation of [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I]] as 1st [[Emperor of Brazil]]]]

Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|royalists]], who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the [[Absolutist Restoration]], as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict.

The independence of South America was secured by [[Simón Bolívar]] (Venezuela) and [[José de San Martín]] (Argentina), the two most important ''[[Libertadores]]''. Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towards [[Lima]], the capital of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]. Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at the [[Guayaquil Conference]] in Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the liberated nations.<ref name=guay/> Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at the [[Battle of Ayacucho]], securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America.<ref name=guay>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Guayaquil-Conference|title=Guayaquil Conference &#124; Latin America, Ecuador, Independence &#124; Britannica|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

In the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves|Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil]], [[Dom Pedro I]] (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King [[Dom João VI]], proclaimed the independent [[Kingdom of Brazil]] in 1822, which later became the [[Empire of Brazil]]. Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons in [[Bahia]], [[Cisplatina]] and [[Pará]], independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by the United Kingdom.

===Nation-building and fragmentation===
[[File:Juan Manuel Blanes - El Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales.jpg|thumb|The [[Thirty-Three Orientals]] proclaimed the independence of [[Cisplatine Province]].]]
[[File:Oscar Pereira da Silva - Cena de Batalha no Sul do Brasil.jpg|thumb|Battle of Fanfa, battle scene in Southern Brazil during the [[Ragamuffin War]]]]

The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as the [[Republic of Entre Ríos]] and the [[Riograndense Republic]]).

The first separatist attempt was in 1820 by the Argentine province of [[Entre Ríos Province|Entre Ríos]], led by a [[caudillo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brasilescola.uol.com.br/historia-da-america/caudilhismo.htm|title=Caudilhismo|website=Brasil Escola|access-date=22 March 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414154311/https://brasilescola.uol.com.br/historia-da-america/caudilhismo.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In spite of the "Republic" in its title, [[Francisco Ramírez (governor)|General Ramírez]], its caudillo, never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and centralist ideas that back then permeated [[Buenos Aires]] politics. The "country" was reincorporated at the United Provinces in 1821.

In 1825, the [[Cisplatine Province]] declared its independence from the [[Empire of Brazil]], which led to the [[Cisplatine War]] between the imperials and the Argentine from the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]] to control the region. Three years later, the United Kingdom intervened in the question by proclaiming a tie and creating in the former Cisplatina a new independent country: The [[Oriental Republic of Uruguay]].

Later in 1836, while Brazil was experiencing the chaos of the regency, [[Rio Grande do Sul]] [[Ragamuffin War|proclaimed its independence]] motivated by a tax crisis. With the anticipation of the coronation of [[Pedro II]] to the throne of Brazil, the country could stabilize and fight the separatists, which the province of [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] had joined in 1839. The Conflict came to an end by a process of compromise by which both [[Riograndense Republic]] and [[Juliana Republic]] were reincorporated as provinces in 1845.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brasilescola.com/historiab/guerra-farrapos.htm|title=Ragamuffin War|last=Day|first=Peter|date=17 December 1997|publisher=Brasil Escola|access-date=27 March 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303074424/http://www.brasilescola.com/historiab/guerra-farrapos.htm|archive-date=3 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brasilescola.com/historiab/revolucao-farroupilha.htm|title=Ragamuffin Revolution|last=Souza|first=Rainer|date=20 January 2002|publisher=RioGrande|access-date=27 March 2007|archive-date=18 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718095538/http://www.brasilescola.com/historiab/revolucao-farroupilha.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Batalla de Chorrillos.jpg|thumb|The [[Chilean Army]] in the battlefield of the [[Battle of Chorrillos]], 1883]]

The [[Peru–Bolivian Confederation]], a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia, was blocked by Chile in the [[War of the Confederation]] (1836–1839) and again during the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–1883). Paraguay was virtually destroyed by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in the [[Paraguayan War]].

===Wars and conflicts===
Despite the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] and the [[Brazilian War of Independence]], the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves. Most of the countries' borders who had initially accepted the 1810 borders on the ''uti possidetis iuris'' principle had by 1848 either been altered by war or were contested.<ref>Holsti 1996, p. 153.</ref>

In 1825, the proclamation of independence of Cisplatina led to the [[Cisplatine War]] between historical rivals the [[Empire of Brazil]] and the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]], Argentina's predecessor. The result was a stalemate, ending with the [[British government]] arranging for the independence of Uruguay. Soon after, another Brazilian province proclaimed its independence leading to the [[Ragamuffin War]] which Brazil won.

Between 1836 and 1839, the [[War of the Confederation]] broke out between the short-lived [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]] and Chile, with the support of the [[Argentine Confederation]]. The war was fought mostly in the actual territory of [[Peru]] and ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the Confederacy and annexation of many territories by Argentina.

Meanwhile, the [[Argentine Civil Wars]] plagued Argentina since its independence. The conflict was mainly between those who defended the centralization of power in Buenos Aires and those who defended a confederation. During this period it can be said that "there were two Argentines": the [[Argentine Confederation]] and the [[Argentine Republic]]. At the same time, the political instability in Uruguay led to the [[Uruguayan Civil War]] among the main political factions of the country. All this instability in the [[platine region]] interfered with the goals of other countries such as Brazil, which was soon forced to take sides. In 1851, the [[Brazilian Empire]], supporting the centralizing unitarians, and the [[Uruguay|Uruguayan government]] invaded Argentina and deposed the caudillo, [[Juan Manuel Rosas]], who ruled the confederation with an iron hand. Although the [[Platine War]] did not put an end to the political chaos and civil war in Argentina, it brought temporary peace to Uruguay where the [[Colorado Party (Uruguay)|Colorados faction]] won, supported by [[Brazilian Empire|Brazil]], [[United Kingdom of Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[Second French Empire|France]] and the [[Unitarian Party]] of Argentina.<ref name="Latin America's Wars">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khU0sFxgyjMC&q=chapter+twenty-five&pg=RA2-PA1844|title=Latin America's Wars|first=Robert L.|last=Scheina|date=2003|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1597974776|access-date=28 October 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414173957/https://books.google.com/books?id=khU0sFxgyjMC&q=chapter+twenty-five&pg=RA2-PA1844|url-status=live}}</ref>

Peace lasted only a short time: in 1864, the Uruguayan factions faced each other again in the [[Uruguayan War]]. The [[National Party (Uruguay)|Blancos]] supported by Paraguay started to attack Brazilian and Argentine farmers near the borders. The Empire made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados without success. In 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, the imperial government declared that Brazil's military would begin reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and, for most of its duration, the Uruguayan–Brazilian armed conflict was an undeclared war which led to the deposition of the ''Blancos'' and the rise of the pro-Brazilian ''Colorados'' to power again. This angered the Paraguayan government, which even before the end of the war invaded Brazil, beginning the longest and bloodiest inter-state war in Latin American history: the Paraguayan War.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bethell|first=Leslie|date=2018|title=Brazil: Essays on History and Politics|location=London|publisher=University of London|chapter=3. The Paraguayan War (1864–70)|pages=93–112|isbn=978-1-908857-61-3}}</ref>
[[File:Brazilians during the siege of Paysandu.jpg|thumb|[[Imperial Brazilian Navy]] [[siege of Paysandú]], 1865]]

The Paraguayan War began when the Paraguayan dictator [[Francisco Solano López]] ordered the invasion of the Brazilian provinces of [[Mato Grosso]] and [[Rio Grande do Sul]]. His attempt to cross Argentinian territory without Argentinian approval led the pro-Brazilian Argentine government into the war. The pro-Brazilian Uruguayan government showed its support by sending troops. In 1865 the three countries signed the [[Treaty of the Triple Alliance]] against Paraguay. At the beginning of the war, the Paraguayans took the lead with several victories, until the Triple Alliance organized to repel the invaders and fight effectively. This was the second [[total war]] experience in the world after the [[American Civil War]]. It was deemed the greatest war effort in the history of all participating countries, taking almost 6 years and ending with the complete devastation of Paraguay. The country lost 40% of its territory to Brazil and Argentina and lost 60% of its population, including 90% of the men. The dictator Lopez was killed in battle and a new government was instituted in alliance with Brazil, which maintained occupation forces in the country until 1876.<ref>{{cite web|language=pt|url=http://www.historiadobrasil.net/guerraparaguai/|title=A Guerra do Paraguai – História – Resumo|last=Borges|first=Fernando Tadeu de Miranda|website=Historiadobrasil.net|access-date=26 January 2017|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308172856/http://historiadobrasil.net/guerraparaguai/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The last South American war in the 19th century was the [[War of the Pacific]] with Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. In 1879 the war began with Chilean troops occupying Bolivian ports, followed by Bolivia declaring war on Chile which activated an alliance treaty with Peru. The Bolivians were completely defeated in 1880 and Lima was occupied in 1881. Peace was signed with Peru in 1883 while a truce was signed with Bolivia in 1884. Chile annexed territories of both countries leaving Bolivia [[landlocked]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Carlos|last=Rossi|date=9 July 2007|language=pt|title=América Latina – Guerra do Pacífico|url=http://pt.shvoong.com/humanities/h_history/1628182-américa-latina-guerra-pacífico/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304002203/http://pt.shvoong.com/humanities/h_history/1628182-am%C3%A9rica-latina-guerra-pac%C3%ADfico/|archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Brazilian battleship Minas Geraes firing a broadside.jpg|left|thumb|The Brazilian [[Minas Geraes-class battleship|''Minas Geraes'' class]] kindled an [[South American dreadnought race|Argentine–Brazilian–Chilean naval arms race]].]]

In the new century, as wars became less violent and less frequent, Brazil entered into a small conflict with Bolivia for the possession of the Acre, which was acquired by Brazil in 1902. In 1917 Brazil declared war on the [[Central Powers]], joined the allied side in the [[First World War]] and sent a small fleet to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and some troops to be integrated with the British and French forces in the region. Brazil was the only South American country that participated in the First World War.<ref>Woodard, James P. "A Place in Politics: São Paulo, Brazil; From Seigneurial Republicanism to Regionalist Revolt" Duke University Press 2009 Chapter 3 "War and the Health of the State" especially pp. 77–81, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RS7kgAPs430C&dq=Brazil+%22A+Place+in+Politics%22+pickets+pestilence&pg=PA77 visualization on Google Books], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421193251/https://books.google.com/books?id=RS7kgAPs430C&pg=PA77&dq=Brazil+%22A+Place+in+Politics%22+pickets+pestilence&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=WaFPUefhOOfK0AH_iYGQAw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Brazil%20%22A%20Place%20in%20Politics%22%20pickets%20pestilence&f=false|date=21 April 2020}}.</ref><ref>[[Michael Conniff|Conniff, Michael L.]] and [[Frank McCann|McCann, Frank D.]] "Modern Brazil, Elites and Masses in Historical Perspective", University of Nebraska Press, 1991, {{ISBN|0803263481}}, p. 168, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UhbQdNXVtKYC&dq=strike+brazil+1917+brazil&pg=PA168 visualization on Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216013933/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhbQdNXVtKYC&pg=PA168&dq=strike+brazil+1917+brazil&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=tZpPUbwfktXSAcG1gOgK&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=strike%20brazil%201917%20brazil&f=false|date=16 February 2017}}.</ref> Later in 1932 Colombia and Peru entered a [[Leticia Incident|short armed conflict]] for territory in the Amazon. In the same year Paraguay declared [[Chaco War|war on Bolivia]] for possession of the Chaco, in a conflict that ended three years later with Paraguay's victory. Between 1941 and 1942 Peru and Ecuador [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War|fought for territories]] claimed by both that were annexed by Peru, usurping Ecuador's frontier with Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ucdp.uu.se/#country/135|website=Uppsala Conflict Data Program|publisher=Uppsala Universitet|title=Peru|access-date=29 May 2019|archive-date=20 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220062811/https://ucdp.uu.se/#country/135|url-status=live}}</ref>

Also in this period, the first major naval battle of [[World War II]] took place in the South Atlantic close to the continental mainland: the [[Battle of the River Plate]], between a British [[cruiser]] squadron and a German [[pocket battleship]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smyers|first=Richard P.|title=Review: Panzerschiff "Admiral Gragg Spee" by Siegfried Breyer|journal=Warship International|year=1990|volume=27|issue=1|page=44|jstor=44891302|postscript=;}} {{cite book|last=Landsborough|first=Gordon|title=The Battle of the River Plate: the First Naval Battle of the Second World War|year=2016|publisher=Frontline Books|isbn=978-1473878952}}</ref> The Germans still made numerous attacks on Brazilian ships on the coast, causing Brazil to declare war on the [[Axis powers]] in 1942, being the only South American country to fight in this war (and in both World Wars). Brazil sent naval and air forces to [[Battle of the Atlantic|combat German and Italian submarines]] off the continent and throughout the South Atlantic, in addition to sending an [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|expeditionary force]] to fight in the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]].<ref name="Ibidem Maximiano 2011">Maximiano, Cesar. with Bonalume, Ricardo N. & Bujeiro, Ramiro. [https://books.google.com/books?id=L6HVtOSmWAEC&q=Brazilian+Expeditionary+Force+WWII ''Brazilian Expeditionary Force in World War II''], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105203029/https://books.google.com/books?id=L6HVtOSmWAEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brazilian+Expeditionary+Force+WWII&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=kgVwUslnwaaRB7_hgaAB&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Brazilian%20Expeditionary%20Force%20WWII&f=false|date=5 January 2016}}. Osprey Publishing Limited, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1849084833}} (Print version).</ref><ref>Frank D. MacCann – 'Estudios Interdisciplinarios de America Latina y el Caribe', vol. 6, No. 2, 1995.</ref>

A brief war was fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982, following an Argentine invasion of the [[Falkland Islands]], which ended with an Argentine defeat. The last international war to be fought on South American soil was the 1995 [[Cenepa War]] between Ecuador and Peru along their mutual border.

===Rise and fall of military dictatorships===
Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, the [[ABC countries|three wealthiest South American countries]] engaged in [[South American dreadnought race|a vastly expensive naval arms race]] which began after the introduction of a new warship type, the "[[dreadnought]]". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase.<ref>Richard Hough, ''The Big Battleship'' (London, England: Michael Joseph, 1966), p. 19. {{oclc|8898108}}.</ref><ref>Robert Scheina, ''Latin America: A Naval History, 1810–1987'' (Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1987), p. 86. {{ISBN|0-87021-295-8}}. {{oclc|15696006}}.</ref>

[[File:Soldadosargentinos3.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|left|Argentine soldiers during the [[Falklands War]]]]
The continent became a battlefield of the [[Cold War]] in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of [[political prisoner]]s, many of whom were tortured or killed on [[Operation Condor|inter-state collaboration]]. Economically, they began a transition to [[neoliberal]] economic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from [[Internal conflict in Peru|an internal conflict]].

In 1982, Argentina invaded the [[Falklands War|Falkland Islands]], a British [[British Overseas Territory|dependent territory]]. The [[Falklands War]] began and 74 days later [[Argentine surrender in the Falklands War|Argentine forces surrendered]].<ref>{{cite web|title=June 14, 1982: Falklands War comes to an end as Britain accepts Argentina's surrender|url=https://home.bt.com/news/on-this-day/june-14-1982-falklands-war-comes-to-an-end-as-britain-accepts-argentinas-surrender-11363986434075|website=BT Group|access-date=6 December 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806081007/http://home.bt.com/news/on-this-day/june-14-1982-falklands-war-comes-to-an-end-as-britain-accepts-argentinas-surrender-11363986434075|url-status=live}}</ref>

Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of [[Marxist]] [[guerrillas]] (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC.

Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratization passed through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.<ref>"The Cambridge History of Latin America", edited by Leslie Bethell, Cambridge University Press (1995), {{ISBN|0-521-39525-9}}.</ref> Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, on most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued.

[[Debt of developing countries|International indebtedness]] became a significant problem in the late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without resorting to unorthodox economic policies. This was illustrated by Argentina's [[Argentine economic crisis (1999-2002)|default]] in the early 21st century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Leslie Bethell|title=Bibliographical Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tNWbywFXhkC|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-39525-0|access-date=17 October 2015|archive-date=1 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101123048/https://books.google.com/books?id=6tNWbywFXhkC|url-status=live}}</ref> There has been an increased push towards [[Integration of Latin America|regional integration]], with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as the [[Andean Community]], [[Mercosur]] and [[Unasur]]. Starting with the election of [[Hugo Chávez]] in Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced a [[pink tide]] – the election of several leftist and center-left administrations in most countries, except the Guianas and Colombia.

=== Contemporary issues ===
South America's political geography since the 1990s has been characterized by a desire to reduce foreign influence.<ref name="natgeo">{{cite web|last1=Society|first1=National Geographic|title=South America: Human Geography|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/south-america-human-geography/|work=National Geographic|access-date=7 November 2021|date=4 January 2012|archive-date=7 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107175007/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/south-america-human-geography/|url-status=live}}</ref> The nationalization of industries, by which the state controls entire economic sectors (as opposed of private companies doing it), has become a prominent political issue in the region.<ref name="natgeo"/> Some South American nations have nationalized their electricity industries.<ref name="natgeo"/>