Editing Sonnet (section)

==Romance languages==
===Sicilian===
[[Giacomo da Lentini]]  is credited with the sonnet's invention at the Court of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] in the Sicilian city of [[Palermo]]. The [[Sicilian School]] of poets who surrounded Lentini then spread the form to the mainland. Those earliest sonnets no longer survive in the original [[Sicilian language]], however, but only after being translated into [[Tuscan dialect]]. The form consisted of a pair of [[quatrain]]s followed by a pair of [[tercet]]s with the symmetrical rhyme scheme ABABABAB CDCDCD, where the sense is carried forward in a new direction after the [[Volta (literature)|midway break]].

[[Peter Dronke]] has commented that there was something intrinsic to its flexible form that contributed to the sonnet's survival far beyond its region of origin.<ref>Peter Dronke, ''The Medieval Lyric'', Hutchinson University Library, 1968, pp. 151–4.</ref> [[William Baer (writer)|William Baer]] suggests that the first eight lines of the earliest Sicilian sonnets are identical to the eight-line Sicilian folksong stanza known as the ''Strambotto''. To this, da Lentini (or whoever else invented the form) added two tercets to the ''Strambotto'' in order to create the new 14-line sonnet form.<ref>William Baer (2005), ''Sonnets: 150 Contemporary Sonnets'', University of Evansville Press, pp. 153–154.</ref>

In contrast, Hassanally Ladha<ref>{{cite web| url = https://languages.uconn.edu/person/hassanaly-ladha/| title = Hassanaly Ladha's profile at University of Connecticut| date = 22 January 2016}}</ref> has argued that the Sicilian sonnet's structure and content drew upon [[Arabic poetry]] and cannot be explained as the "invention" of the Sicilian School of poets. Ladha notes that "in its Sicilian beginnings, the sonnet evinces literary and epistemological contact with the ''[[qasida]]''",<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10412573.2020.1743523 Ladha, Hassanaly, "From Bayt to Stanza: Arabic Khayāl and the Advent of Italian Vernacular Poetry": ''Exemplaria'': Vol 32, No 1 (tandfonline.com)], p. 17. Retrieved 7 July 2021.</ref> and emphasizes that the sonnet did not emerge simultaneously with its supposedly defining 14-line structure. "Tellingly, attempts to close off the sonnet from its Arabic predecessors depend upon a definition of the new lyric to which Giacomo's poetry does not conform: surviving in thirteenth-century recensions, his poems appear not in fourteen, but rather six lines, including four rows, each with two [[hemistich]]es and two 'tercets' each in a line extending over two rows."<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10412573.2020.1743523| title = Ladha, p. 15.| journal = Exemplaria| date = 2 January 2020| volume = 32| issue = 1| pages = 1–31| doi = 10.1080/10412573.2020.1743523| s2cid = 221178512| last1 = Ladha| first1 = Hassanaly}}</ref> In Ladha's view, the sonnet emerges as the continuation of a broader tradition of love poetry throughout the Mediterranean world and relates to such other forms as the Sicilian ''strambotto'', the [[Provençal language|Provençal]] ''[[canso (song)|canso]]'', the [[Andalusi Arabic]] ''[[muwashshah]]'' and ''[[zajal]]'', as well as the ''qasida''.<ref>{{cite journal| url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10412573.2020.1743523| title = Ladha, p. 26, n. 80.| journal = Exemplaria| date = 2 January 2020| volume = 32| issue = 1| pages = 1–31| doi = 10.1080/10412573.2020.1743523| s2cid = 221178512| last1 = Ladha| first1 = Hassanaly}}</ref>

===Italian===
[[File:Petrarch_canzoniere.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The first five sonnets of [[Petrarch]]'s ''Il Canzoniere'']]
[[Guittone d'Arezzo]] rediscovered the sonnet form and brought it to [[Tuscany]], where he adapted it to [[Tuscan dialect]] when he founded the Siculo-Tuscan, or Guittonian school of poetry (1235–1294). He wrote almost 250 sonnets.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=spKxJeHJgTAC&pg=PA1053| title = ''Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia, Volume 2,'' Christopher Kleinhenz| isbn = 9780415939317| last1 = Kleinhenz| first1 = Christopher| year = 2003| publisher = Routledge}}</ref> Among the host of other Italian poets that followed, the sonnets of [[Dante Alighieri]] and [[Guido Cavalcanti]] stand out, but later the most famous and widely influential was [[Petrarch]].

The structure of a typical Italian sonnet as it developed included two parts that together formed a compact form of "argument". First, the [[octave (poetry)|octave]] forms the "proposition", which describes a "problem" or "question", followed by a [[sestet]] (two [[tercet]]s) that proposes a "resolution". Typically, the ninth line initiates what is called the "turn", or "[[volta (literature)|volta]]", which signals the move from proposition to resolution. Even in sonnets that do not strictly follow the problem/resolution structure, the ninth line still often marks a "turn" by signaling a change in the tone, mood, or stance of the poem.

Later, the ABBA ABBA pattern became the standard for Italian sonnets. For the sestet, there were two different possibilities: CDE CDE and CDC CDC. In time, other variants on this rhyming scheme were introduced, such as CDC DCD or CDE DCE. Petrarch typically used an ABBA ABBA pattern for the octave, followed by either CDE CDE or CDC CDC rhymes in the sestet.

At the turn of the 14th century there arrive early examples of the [[sonnet sequence]] unified about a single theme. This is represented by [[Folgore da San Gimignano]]'s series on the months of the year,<ref>[http://www.sonnets.org/folgore.htm" Of the months"], translated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti,</ref> followed by his sequence on the days of the week.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.rossettiarchive.org/docs/1-1874.rad.html#p369| title = Rossetti Archive}}</ref> At a slightly earlier date, Dante had published his ''[[La Vita Nuova]]'', a narrative commentary in which appear sonnets and other lyrical forms centred on the poet's love for Beatrice.<ref>[https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Italian/TheNewLife.php ''La Vita Nuova'' (The New Life)], A. S. Kline, Poetry in Translation, 2000–02.</ref> Most of the sonnets there are Petrarchan (here used as a purely stylistic term since Dante predated Petrarch). Chapter VII gives the sonnet "O voi che per la via", with two sestets (AABAAB AABAAB) and two quatrains (CDDC CDDC), and Ch. VIII, "Morte villana", with two sestets (AABBBA AABBBA) and two quatrains (CDDC CDDC). Petrarch followed in his footsteps later in the next century with the 366 sonnets of the ''Canzionere'', which chronicle his life-long love for [[Petrarch#Laura and poetry|Laura]].<ref>[https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Italian/Petrarchhome.php "Petrarch: ''The Canzonieri''"], A. S. Kline, Poetry in Translation, 2002</ref>

Widespread as sonnet writing became in Italian society, among practitioners were to be found some better known for other things: the painters [[Giotto]] and [[Michelangelo]], for example, and the astronomer [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]. The academician [[Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni]] lists 661 poets just in the 16th century.<ref>"Critical History of the Sonnet", ''Dublin Review'' 79 (1876), [https://books.google.com/books?id=m1YVAQAAIAAJ&dq=Ruckert+%22Geharnischte+Sonette%22&pg=PA418 p. 409.]</ref> So common were they that eventually, in the words of a literary historian: "No event was so trivial, none so commonplace, a tradesman could not open a larger shop, a government clerk could not obtain a few additional ''[[scudi]]'' of salary, but all his friends and acquaintance must celebrate the event, and clothe their congratulations in a copy of verses, which almost invariably assumed this shape."<ref>[[Richard Chevenix Trench]], "The History of the English Sonnet" (London, 1884), [https://archive.org/details/sonnetswilliamw00wordgoog/page/n13/mode/2up p. ix.]</ref>

===Occitan===
The sole confirmed surviving sonnet in the [[Occitan language]] is by [[Paolo Lanfranchi da Pistoia]] and confidently dated to 1284.<ref name=bertoni119>Bertoni, 119.</ref> This employs the rhyme scheme ABAB ABAB CDCDCD and has a political theme, as do some others of dubious authenticity or merit ascribed to "William of Almarichi" and [[Dante de Maiano]].

===Catalan===
One of the earliest sonnets in [[Catalan language|Catalan]] was written by Pere Torroella (1436–1486).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/t/torroella.htm| title = Pere Torroella}}</ref> In the 16th century, the most prolific and subtle Catalan writer of sonnets was Pere Serafí,<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HlYaBwAAQBAJ&dq=pere+seraf%C3%AD+poet&pg=PA160| title = Barry Taylor, Alejandro Coroleu, Humanism and Christian Letters in Early Modern Iberia (1480–1630)| isbn = 9781443822442| last1 = Taylor| first1 = Barry| last2 = Coroleu| first2 = Alejandro| date = 11 May 2010| publisher = Cambridge Scholars}}</ref> author of over 60 published between 1560 and 1565.

===Spanish===
{{Main|Spanish poetry}}
The poet [[Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana]] is credited as among the foremost to attempt "sonnets written in the Italian manner" (''sonetos fechos al itálico modo'') towards the middle of the 15th century. Since the [[Castilian Spanish|Castilian language]] and prosody were in a transitional state at the time, the experiment was unsuccessful.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic1RDwAAQBAJ ''The Spanish Golden Age Sonnet''], ed. John Rutherford, University of Wales Press, 2016.</ref> It was therefore not until after 1526 that the form was reintroduced by [[Juan Boscán]]. According to his account, he met [[Andrea Navagero]], the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] Ambassador to the Spanish Court, in that year while the latter was accompanying King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Carlos V]] on a visit to the [[Alhambra]]. In the course of their literary discussion, Navagero then suggested that the poet might attempt the sonnet and other Italian forms in his own language.<ref>Juan Boscán, ''Epístola a la duquesa de Soma'', Girona University, 2017, [https://dugi-doc.udg.edu/bitstream/handle/10256/14701/LozanoAnguloAnna_Treball.pdf?sequence=1 pp. 35ff.]</ref>

Boscán not only took up the Venetian's advice but did so in association with the more talented [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], a friend to whom some of his sonnets are addressed and whose early death is mourned in another. The poems of both followed the Petrarchan model, employed the hitherto unfamiliar [[hendecasyllable]], and when writing of love were based on the [[Neoplatonism#Renaissance|neoplatonic]] ideal championed in ''[[The Book of the Courtier]]'' (''Il Cortegiano'') that Boscán had also translated. Their reputation was consolidated by the later 1580 edition of [[Fernando de Herrera]], who was himself accounted "the first major Spanish sonneteer after Garcilaso".<ref>Rutherford ed. 2016</ref> During the Baroque period that followed, two notable writers of sonnets headed rival stylistic schools. The [[culteranismo]] of [[Luis de Góngora]], later known as 'Gongorismo' after him, was distinguished by an artificial style and the use of elaborate vocabulary, complex syntactical order and involved metaphors. The verbal usage of his opponent, [[Francisco de Quevedo]], was equally self-conscious, deploying wordplay and metaphysical [[conceit]]s, after which the style was known as [[conceptismo]].

Another key figure at this period was [[Lope de Vega]], who was responsible for writing some 3,000 sonnets, a large proportion of them incorporated into his dramas. One of the best known and most imitated was ''Un soneto me manda hacer Violante''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Un_soneto_me_manda_hacer_Violante|title=Un soneto me manda hacer Violante - Wikisource|website=es.wikisource.org}}</ref> (Violante orders me to write a sonnet), which occupies a pivotal position in literary history. At its first appearance in his 1617 comedy ''La niña de Plata'' (Act 3), the character there pretends to be a novice whose text is a running commentary on the poem's creation. Although the poet himself is portrayed as composing it as a light-hearted impromptu in the biographical film [[Lope (film)|''Lope'']] (2010), there had in fact been precedents. In Spanish, some fifty years before, [[Diego Hurtado de Mendoza (poet and diplomat)|Diego Hurtado de Mendoza]] had written the pretended impromptu, ''Pedís, Reina, un soneto''; and even earlier in Italian there had been the similarly themed ''Qualunque vuol saper fare un sonetto'' (Whoever to make a sonnet aspires) by the Florentine poet Pieraccio Tedaldi (b. ca. 1285–1290; d. ca. 1350).<ref>Jorge Leon Gusta, [https://www.lasnuevemusas.com/historia-de-un-soneto: "Historia de un poema"], 17 August 2021</ref> Later imitations in other languages include one in Italian by [[Giambattista Marino]] and another in French by [[François-Séraphin Régnier-Desmarais]], as well as an adaptation of the idea applied to the [[Rondeau (forme fixe)|rondeau]] by [[Vincent Voiture]].<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20499340 "Sonnets on the Sonnet"], ''The Irish Monthly'', Vol. 26, No. 304 (October 1898) (p. 518).</ref> The poem's fascination for U.S. writers is evidenced by no less than five translations in the second half of the 20th century alone.<ref>David Garrison, "English Translations of Lope de Vega's ''Soneto de repente''", ''Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos'' 19. 2 (Invierno 1995), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27763199?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3Ad3b5657f5255c60abe197657415e64b8&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents pp. 311–325.]</ref>

The sonnet form crossed the Atlantic quite early in the Spanish colonial enterprise when Francisco de Terrazas, the son of a 16th-century conquistador, was among its Mexican pioneers. Later came two sonnet writers in holy orders, Bishop Miguel de Guevara (1585–1646) and, especially, Sister [[Juana Inés de la Cruz]]. But though sonnets continued to be written in both the old world and the new, innovation was mainly limited to the Americas, where the sonnet was used to express a different and post-colonial reality. In the 19th century, for example, there were two poets who wrote memorable sonnets dedicated to Mexican landscapes, [[Joaquín Acadio Pagaza y Ordóñez]] in the torrid zone to the south and [[Manuel José Othón]] in the desolate north.<ref>''An Anthology of Mexican Poetry'' (compiled by Octavio Paz), Indiana University, 1958</ref> In South America, too, the sonnet was used to invoke landscape, particularly in the major collections of the Uruguayan [[Julio Herrera y Reissig]], such as ''Los Parques Abandonados'' (Deserted Parks, 1902–08)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.los-poetas.com/c/reiss1.htm|title=LOS PARQUES ABANDONADOSE|website=www.los-poetas.com}}</ref> and ''Los éxtasis de la montaña'' (Mountain Ecstasies, 1904–07),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.los-poetas.com/c/reiss2.htm|title=Los éxtasis de la montaña|website=www.los-poetas.com}}</ref> whose recognisably authentic pastoral scenes went on to serve as example for [[César Vallejo]] in his evocations of Andean Peru.<ref>Gwen Kirkpatrick, ''The Dissonant Legacy of Modernismo'', University of California, 1989, [https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft8g5008qb&chunk.id=d0e6745&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e6745&brand=ucpress p. 207.]</ref>

Soon afterwards, the sonnet form was deconstructed as part of the modernist questioning of the past. Thus, in the [[Argentine]] poet [[Alfonsina Storni]]'s ''Mascarilla y trébol'' (Mask and Clover, 1938), a section of unrhymed poems using many of the traditional versification structures of the form are presented under the title "antisonnets".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuhnheim |first1=Jill |title=The Politics of Form: Three Twentieth-Century Spanish American Poets and the Sonnet |journal=Hispanic Review |date=Autumn 2008 |page=391 |url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/7507/kuhnheim_thepoliticsofform.pdf |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>

===Portuguese===
{{Main|Portuguese poetry}}
[[Peter, Duke of Coimbra|Dom Pedro]], a son of [[John I of Portugal|King John I]], has been credited with translations of sonnets by Petrarch into Portuguese,<ref>Friedrich Bouterwek, ''History of Spanish and Portuguese Literature'' (London 1823), [https://books.google.com/books?id=d25DhbGrH2AC&dq=sonnet+Portuguese++-Browning&pg=PA12-IA12 vol. 2, p. 13.]</ref> but the form did not come into its own until the start of the 16th century. It was then that [[Sá de Miranda]] introduced the sonnet and other Italian forms, after returning from a five-year stay in Italy.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/art/Portuguese-literature "Portuguese Literature"], Britannica online]</ref> However, the greatest sonneteer of this period was the slightly younger [[Luís de Camões]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moisés |first1=Massaud |title=A literatura portuguesa |date=1997 |publisher=Editora Cultrix |isbn=978-85-316-0231-3 |pages=54–55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcQYSXj0xN0C&q=%22el+rei+seleuco%22&pg=PA54 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref name="Bergel">{{cite web |last1=Bergel |first1=Antonio J. Alías |title=Camões laureado: Legitimación y uso poético de Camões durante el bilingüismo ibérico en el "período filipino" |url=https://webs.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero42/camoensl.html |publisher=Espéculo — Revista de estudios literarios |access-date=24 February 2021}}</ref> though in his work the influence of the Spanish pioneers of the form has also been discerned.<ref>{{cite web |title=Luís de Camões e Ausias March |url=http://74.125.155.132/scholar?q=cache:52R2HKqj7aMJ:scholar.google.com/+camoes+castelhano&hl=pt-BR&lr=&as_sdt=2000&as_vis=1 |page=178 |publisher=Península — Revista de Estudos Ibéricos (2003)}}</ref> Among later writers, the comic sonnets of Thomas de Noronha were once appreciated, and the love sonnets of Barbosa Bacellar (c.1610–1663), also known for his learned glosses on the sonnets of Camões.<ref>Friedrich Bouterwek, [https://books.google.com/books?id=d25DhbGrH2AC&q=sonnet+Portuguese+-Browning  ''History of Spanish and Portuguese Literature''], Volume 2, London, 1823, pp. 11–13, 290–93.</ref>

The introduction later of a purified sonnet style to [[Brazilian literature]] was due to [[Cláudio Manuel da Costa]], who also composed Petrarchan sonnets in Italian during his stay in Europe.<ref>Bouterwek 1823, pp. 357–9.</ref> However, it was in the wake of French [[Parnassianism]] that there developed a similar movement in Brazil, which included the notable sonneteers [[Alberto de Oliveira]], [[Raimundo Correia]] and, especially, [[Olavo Bilac]].<ref>''Anthologie de la Poésie Ibéro-Américaine'', Editions Nagel, 1956, "Introduction", pp. 35–6.</ref> Others writing sonnets in that style included the now overlooked Francisca Júlia da Silva Munster (1871–1920)<ref>Latin American Women Writers: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2014, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AyzGBQAAQBAJ&dq=parnassian+triad&pg=PT831 p. 204.]</ref> and the Symbolist [[Afro-Brazilian]] poet [[João da Cruz e Sousa]].

===French===
{{Main|French poetry}}
In French [[Metre (poetry)#French|prosody]], sonnets are traditionally composed in the [[French alexandrine]], which consists of lines of twelve syllables with a central [[caesura]]. Imitations of Petrarch were first introduced by [[Clément Marot]], and [[Mellin de Saint-Gelais]] also took up the form near the start of the 16th century.<ref>Brandin, Louis Maurice, 1874–; Hartog, Willie Gustave: ''A book of French prosody'', London 1904, [https://archive.org/details/bookoffrenchpros00branuoft/page/112/mode/2up pp. 113–15.]</ref> They were later followed by [[Pierre de Ronsard]], [[Joachim du Bellay]] and [[Jean Antoine de Baïf]], around whom formed a group of radical young noble poets of the court, generally known today as [[La Pléiade]]. They employed, amongst other forms of poetry, the Petrarchan [[sonnet cycle]], developed around an amorous encounter or an idealized woman. The character of the group's literary program was given in Du Bellay's manifesto, the "Defense and Illustration of the French Language" (1549), which maintained that French (like the Tuscan of Petrarch and Dante) was a worthy language for literary expression, and which promulgated a program of linguistic and literary production and purification.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.wdl.org/en/item/4357/| title = World Digital Library}}</ref>

In the aftermath of the [[Wars of Religion]], French Catholic jurist and poet [[Jean de La Ceppède]] published the ''Theorems'', a sequence of 515 sonnets with non-traditional rhyme schemes, about the Passion and Resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]]. Drawing upon the [[Gospels]], [[Greek Mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], and the [[Fathers of the Church]], La Ceppède's poetry was praised by [[Saint Francis de Sales]] for transforming "the Pagan Muses into Christian ones". La Ceppède's sonnets often attack the [[Calvinist]] doctrine of a judgmental and unforgiving God by focusing on Christ's passionate love for the human race. Afterwards the work was long forgotten, until the 20th century witnessed a revival of interest in the poet, and his sonnets are now regarded as classic works of French poetry.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/personnage/Jean_de_La_Cepp%C3%A8de/179635| title = Larousse online}}</ref>

By the late 17th century, the sonnet had fallen out of fashion but was revived by the [[Romanticism#France|Romantics]] in the 19th century. [[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]] then published his imitation of [[William Wordsworth]]'s "Scorn not the sonnet" where, in addition to the poets enumerated in the English original – Shakespeare, Petrarch, Tasso, Camoens, Dante, Spenser, Milton – Sainte-Beuve announces his own intention to revive the form and adds the names of Du Bellay and Ronsard in the final tercet.<ref>''A book of French prosody'', [https://archive.org/details/bookoffrenchpros00branuoft/page/270/mode/2up p. 270.]</ref> The form was little used, however, until the [[Parnassianism|Parnassians]] brought it back into favour, and following them the [[Symbolism (arts)#Movement|Symbolist poets]]. Overseas in Canada, the teenaged [[Émile Nelligan]] is particularly noted among the French language poets who wrote sonnets in that style.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poets/nelligan-emile|title=Nelligan, Emile {{!}} Representative Poetry Online|website=rpo.library.utoronto.ca|access-date=2016-05-06}}</ref> 

During the latter half of the 19th century, there were many deviations from the traditional sonnet form. [[Charles Baudelaire]] was responsible for significant variations in rhyme-scheme and line-length in the poems included in ''[[Les Fleurs du mal]]''.<ref>Killick, Rachel. "''Sorcellerie Évocatoire'' and the Sonnet in ''Les Fleurs Du Mal''", ''Dalhousie French Studies'', vol. 2, Dalhousie University, 1980, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40836219 pp. 21–39]</ref> Among the variations made by others, [[Théodore de Banville]]'s "Sur une dame blonde" limited itself to a four-syllable line,<ref>''A book of French prosody'', [https://archive.org/details/bookoffrenchpros00branuoft/page/272/mode/2up p. 273.]</ref> while in ''À une jeune morte'' Jules de Rességuier (1788–1862) composed a sonnet monosyllabically lined.<ref>''A book of French prosody'',  [https://archive.org/details/bookoffrenchpros00branuoft/page/26/mode/2up p. 27.]</ref>