Editing Second Anglo-Dutch War (section)

== Background ==
Despite similar ideologies,{{efn|Both were [[Protestant]] [[republics]], while [[Kingdom of England|England]] had supported the [[Dutch Republic]] in its [[Eighty Years War]] with [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]]}} commercial disputes and political differences between the [[Dutch Republic]] and [[Commonwealth of England]] led to the 1652 to 1654 [[First Anglo-Dutch War]].{{sfn|Rommelse|2010|p=492}} The [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)|treaty]] that ended the war failed to address these issues, which included Dutch opposition to the 1651 [[Navigation Acts]], and English objections to Dutch trading monopolies. Even when the two countries were at peace, competition for markets in the [[East Indies]] and elsewhere often resulted in conflict outside [[Europe]]. For various reasons, factions in both countries hampered efforts to reach resolution through diplomatic means.{{sfn|Rommelse|2010|p=593}}{{sfn|Pincus|2002|pp=246–262}}

From 1650 to 1672, Dutch politics was dominated by the [[Dutch States Party|States Party]] and their leader, [[Grand pensionary]] [[Johan de Witt]]. Despite suspicions about [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]'s links to their [[Orangism (Dutch Republic)|Orangist]] opponents,{{efn|Born in 1650, the young [[William III of England|Prince of Orange]] was Charles' nephew and son of his sister [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary]]; despite his years of exile in the Republic, Charles disliked the Dutch, and objected to de Witt's refusal to extradite English republicans and other dissidents who took refuge there{{sfn|Jackson|2021|p=392}}}} de Witt viewed the 1660 [[Stuart Restoration]] as an opportunity to rebuild relationships. He hoped to negotiate overlapping defensive agreements with [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of France|France]] to ensure peace, and continued Dutch economic dominance.{{sfn|Rommelse|2010|p=601}}

However, the English saw little benefit in preserving this system, and wanted concessions the Dutch were not prepared to grant.{{sfn|Seaward|1987|p=438}} When merchants in the [[City of London]] demanded increased [[Protectionism]], Charles II renewed the Navigation Acts in August 1660, then strengthened them further in 1663.{{sfn|Rommelse|2010|p=601}} [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] claimed they were simply responding to measures taken by the [[Dutch East India Company]], or VOC, to enforce its monopolies in Asia,{{efn|The huge profits from Asian [[spice]]s led to conflict even in times of peace, as the VOC created, then enforced, their monopoly over production and trade. By 1663, indigenous and European competitors like the [[Dutch–Portuguese War|Portuguese]] had been eliminated, the only gap in the VOC monopoly being English [[nutmeg]] plantations on [[Run (island)|Run]], which were finally destroyed by the Dutch in late 1664{{sfn|Le Couteur| Burreson|2003|pp=30–32}}}} and by the [[Dutch West India Company]], or WIC, in [[West Africa]].{{sfn|Rommelse|2010|p=602}}

For Charles, expanding the economy was another way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament, preferably using royal [[Monopoly|monopolies]] or charters to do so.{{sfn|Rommelse|2010|p=600}} In 1660, he and his brother [[James II of England|James]] founded the [[Royal African Company]], or RAC, whose purpose was to challenge Dutch dominance of the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Investors included senior politicians such as [[George Carteret]], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]] and [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Arlington]], creating a strong link between the RAC and government policy.{{sfn|Sherman|1976|pp=331–332}}

The Atlantic trade was a three way process, whereby slaves from West Africa were transported to [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean]], which in turn were supplied by colonies in [[North America]]. These links meant conflict in one region often led to fighting in all three. In August 1664, the English first occupied [[New Netherland]], renamed [[New York City]], then took WIC slaving posts in modern [[Guinea]].{{sfn|Jackson|2021|p=395}} When these were [[Expedition to West Africa (1664-1665)|recaptured]] by a Dutch fleet under [[Michiel de Ruyter]] in early 1665, the RAC was forced into [[bankruptcy]], and its influential investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses.{{sfn|Rommelse|2006|p=196}}

In taking these actions, the Dutch were reassured by their 1662 defensive treaty with France, under which [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] agreed to provide military support if they were attacked by England.{{sfn|Rommelse|2006|pp=33–34}}{{efn|Although an Anglo-Dutch treaty was also signed in 1662, its terms were so vague that it was of little value{{sfn|Seaward|1987|p=442}}}} In return, the Dutch undertook not to interfere with French actions in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], but by 1664, many were concerned by the prospect of having an expansionist France as a neighbour, rather than a weakened [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]]. Although it provided another reason to agree terms with England, negotiations made little progress.{{sfn|Seaward|1987|p=440}} This was partially due to the complexity of the Dutch political system, which made it difficult to reach consensus between the different [[Provinces of the Netherlands|provinces]] and powerful trade groups like the VOC. It also reflected de Witt's belief Parliament would not approve funds for an expensive naval war, a view shared by many English politicians, including Charles' chief minister [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Lord Clarendon]].{{sfn|Seaward|1987|p=442}}

For his part, Louis XIV feared an Anglo-Dutch conflict might draw in Spain or the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and impede his efforts to acquire the Spanish Netherlands.{{sfn|Jackson|2021|pp=385-396}} He therefore tried to mediate between the two, or at least limit conflict to [[Africa]] and the [[Americas]], which would not require France to become involved.{{sfn|Miller|1991|p=119}} Aware of his reluctance, Charles II saw no reason to make concessions, while [[Sir George Downing, 1st Baronet|Sir George Downing]], his [[List of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the Netherlands|Ambassador]] in [[The Hague]], claimed recent financial losses meant the Dutch could not afford a war.{{sfn|Seaward|1987|p=440}} Other advisors argued the Franco-Dutch treaty only applied to defensive actions, so provoking the Dutch into declaring war would give Louis XIV the chance to remain neutral.{{sfn|Fox|2018|pp=69, 136}} Following English attacks on convoys off [[Cadiz]] and in the [[English Channel]], the Dutch declared war on 4 March 1665.{{sfn|Fox|2018|pp=67–68}}

===Opposing forces and tactics===
Some historians argue that just as the tactics used by 17th century armies were transformed by the [[Military Revolution]], the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] marked a similar change in naval practice. The ships on either side have been described as the "most advanced, complex, expensive and manpower-intensive weapons systems of their day".{{sfn|Palmer|1997|p=124}} With the fleets involved increasing to over 100 ships per side, maximising firepower required greater levels of organisation, discipline and co-ordination. One solution to these problems was the [[Line of battle]] formation.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|p=124}}

[[File:Peter Pett.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|{{ship|English ship|Sovereign||2}}, with its architect Peter Pett; built in 1634, it carried over 100 guns, while the largest Dutch ships had a complement of 60 to 70]]

In 1664, the [[Royal Navy]] issued new "Fighting Instructions", formalising the "line of battle" as standard practice. They also established a signalling system allowing commanders to control their fleets, something the Dutch then lacked.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|pp=136-137}} Over the course of the war, the formation was employed by both, although it better suited the heavier ships used by the Royal Navy, and its emphasis on gunnery to sink opponents. The Dutch preferred the use of [[Naval boarding|boarding]], with individual ships fighting one another.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|p=129}}

Difficulties in communicating orders meant during combat many captains focused on avoiding collisions rather than engaging the enemy, making battles chaotic and often indecisive.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|pp=136-138}} In addition, both navies consisted of significant numbers of purpose-built warships, bulked out by private merchantmen. Although many of the latter were well-armed, they were often less capable of standing up to sustained fire. Dutch merchant ships were particularly vulnerable to the larger English warships.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|p=140}}

Based on lessons learned from the First Anglo-Dutch War, post-1653 the [[Royal Netherlands Navy|Dutch navy]] was re-organised around sixty-four newly built and larger [[Ships of the line]], each with between 40 and 60 guns.{{sfn|Bruijn|2011|pp=64–65}} However, they remained inferior to English vessels such as {{ship|English ship|Sovereign||2}}, which carried over 100 guns. In 1664, it was decided to create a new core of even heavier ships, which were mostly still under construction when fighting began in 1665.{{sfn|Bruijn|2011|p=66}} Stronger finances allowed the Dutch to complete these plus another twenty during the war, compared to only a dozen built by England.{{sfn|Israel|1995|p=721}}

Although the Royal Navy was superior in ships and leadership at the beginning of the war, these advantages were gradually eroded by Parliament's reluctance to fund it. Downing, and other observers who argued the Dutch could not afford a war, overlooked recent reforms that improved their credit, and made it relatively easy to raise money.{{sfn|Rosende|2019}} In contrast, English expectations that profits from Dutch ships captured by [[privateers]] would cover costs proved unfounded. In December 1664, Parliament approved £2.5 million in taxes for the navy, but much of this was spent on essential repairs, or allegedly stolen by officials.{{sfn|Jackson|2021|p=396}} To fund operations, Charles had to rely on short-term loans from the City of London, at ever increasing interest rates.{{sfn|Rommelse|2006|p=43}} By the end of 1666, lack of money led him to discharge most of the fleet, with disastrous results.{{sfn|Rosende|2019}}