Editing Saxony (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Saxony}}
Saxony has a long history as a [[duchy]], an [[Prince-elector|electorate]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (the [[Electorate of Saxony]]), and finally as a [[king]]dom (the [[Kingdom of Saxony]]). In 1918, after Germany's defeat in [[World War I]], its monarchy was overthrown and a republican form of government was established under the current name. The state was broken up into smaller units during communist rule (1949–1989), but was re-established on 3 October 1990 on the reunification of [[East Germany|East]] and [[West Germany]].

=== Prehistory ===
In prehistoric times, the territory of present-day Saxony was the site of some of the largest of the ancient central European [[Circular ditches|monumental temples]], dating from the fifth millennium BC. Notable archaeological sites have been discovered in Dresden and the villages of Eythra and [[Zwenkau]] near Leipzig. The [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] presence in the territory of today's Saxony is thought to have begun in the first century BC.

Parts of Saxony were possibly under the control of the Germanic King [[Marobod]] during the Roman era. By the late Roman period, several tribes known as the [[Saxons]] emerged, from which the subsequent state(s) draw their name. <!-- ''For the origins of the Saxon tribes, see [[Saxons]]''. -->

===Stem Duchy of Saxony===
{{Main|Old Saxony|Duchy of Saxony|Sorbian March}}

Since the late 6th century, the territory of modern-day Saxony and parts of Thuringia was populated by [[Polabian Slavs]], most prominently the [[Sorbs (tribe)|Sorbs]]. It was conquered by [[Francia]] and subsequently organized as the [[Sorbian March]].<ref>[[Sebastian Brather|Brather, Sebastian]] (2004). "[https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00112980 The beginnings of Slavic settlement east of the river Elbe]". ''Antiquity'', Volume 78, Issue 300. pp. 314–329</ref><ref>[[Sebastian Brather|Brather, Sebastian]]. (2001; 2nd ed. 2008). ''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110209952/html Archäologie der westlichen Slawen: Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Ostmitteleuropa]''. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110206098</ref> A legacy of this period is the modern ethnic group of [[Sorbs]] in Saxony. Eastern and western<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Plauen|volume=21}}</ref> parts of present Saxony were ruled by [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] at various times between 1075 and 1635 (with some intermissions), and [[Schirgiswalde]] ({{langx|hsb|link=no|Šěrachów}}; {{langx|cs|Šerachov}}) remained a Bohemian exclave until 1809. Eastern parts were also ruled by Poland between 1002 and 1032, by the [[Duchy of Jawor]], the southwesternmost duchy of fragmented [[Piast dynasty|Piast]]-ruled Poland, from 1319 to 1346,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bogusławski|first=Wilhelm|title=Rys dziejów serbo-łużyckich|year=1861|location=Petersburg|page=142|language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Rieck|first=Gisela|year=2014|title=Herzog Heinrich von Jauer herrscht über die östliche Oberlausitz|magazine=Ora et labora|publisher=Freundeskreis der Abtei St. Marienthal|language=de|location=Ostritz|issue=49|page=17}}</ref> and by [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] from 1469 to 1490,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Köhler|first=Gustav|title=Der Bund der Sechsstädte in der Ober-Lausitz: Eine Jubelschrift|year=1846|publisher=G. Heinze & Comp.|location=Görlitz|language=de|page=30}}</ref> and [[Krauschwitz|Pechern]] ({{langx|hsb|link=no|Pěchč}}) was part of the [[Duchy of Żagań]], one of the [[Lower Silesia]]n duchies formed in the course of the medieval fragmentation of Poland,<ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Gemeinde Krauschwitz i.d. O.L.|language=de|page=9}}</ref> remaining under the Piast dynasty until 1472.

[[File:Heinrich der Löwe und Mathilde von England.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Henry the Lion]] (with his wife [[Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony]]) being crowned as the [[List of rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]]]
The first medieval '''Duchy of Saxony''' was a late [[Early Middle Ages]] "[[Carolingian Empire|Carolingian]] [[stem duchy]]", which emerged around the start of the 8th century AD and grew to include the greater part of Northern [[Germany]], what are now the modern German states of [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]] and [[Saxony-Anhalt]]. Saxons converted to Christianity during this period, with [[Charlemagne]] outlawing pagan practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karras |first=Ruth Mazo |date=1986 |title=Pagan Survivals and Syncretism in the Conversion of Saxony |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25022405 |journal=The Catholic Historical Review |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=553–572 |jstor=25022405 |issn=0008-8080}}</ref> This geographical region is unrelated to present-day Saxony but the name moved southwards due to certain historical events (see below).

===Holy Roman Empire===
{{Main article|Electorate of Saxony}}
The territory of the Free State of Saxony became part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] by the 10th century, when the dukes of Saxony were also kings (or emperors) of the Holy Roman Empire, comprising the [[Ottonian dynasty|Ottonian]], or Saxon, dynasty. The [[Margravate of Meissen]] was founded in 985 as a [[frontier march]], that soon extended to the [[Kwisa]] (Queis) river to the east and as far as the Ore Mountains. In the process of {{Lang|de|[[Ostsiedlung]]}}, settlement of German farmers in the sparsely populated area was promoted. Around this time, the [[Billung]]s, a [[Saxons|Saxon]] noble family, received extensive lands in Saxony. The emperor eventually gave them the title of [[List of rulers of Saxony|dukes of Saxony]]. After [[Magnus, Duke of Saxony|Duke Magnus]] died in 1106, causing the extinction of the male line of Billungs, oversight of the duchy was given to [[Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar of Supplinburg]], who also became emperor for a short time.

In 1137, control of Saxony passed to the [[House of Welf|Guelph]] dynasty, descendants of Wulfhild Billung, eldest daughter of the last Billung duke, and the daughter of Lothar of Supplinburg. In 1180 large portions west of the Weser were ceded to the [[Electorate of Cologne|Bishops of Cologne]], while some central parts between the Weser and the Elbe remained with the Guelphs, becoming later the Duchy of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]]. The remaining eastern lands, together with the title of Duke of Saxony, passed to an [[House of Ascania|Ascanian]] dynasty (descended from [[Eilika of Saxony|Eilika Billung]], Wulfhild's younger sister) and were divided in 1260 into the two small states of [[Saxe-Lauenburg]] and [[Saxe-Wittenberg]]. The former state was also named ''[[Lower Saxony]]'', the latter ''[[Upper Saxony]]'', thence the later names of the two [[Imperial Circle]]s Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. Both claimed the Saxon [[prince-elector|electoral privilege]] for themselves, but the [[Golden Bull of 1356]] accepted only Wittenberg's claim, with Lauenburg nevertheless continuing to maintain its claim. In 1422, when the Saxon electoral line of the Ascanians became extinct, the Ascanian [[Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg]] tried to reunite the Saxon duchies.

However, [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], [[King of the Romans]], had already granted Margrave [[Frederick the Warlike|Frederick IV the Warlike]] of [[Margraviate of Meissen|Meissen]] ([[House of Wettin]]) an expectancy of the Saxon electorate in order to remunerate his military support. On 1 August 1425 Sigismund enfeoffed the Wettinian Frederick as Prince-Elector of Saxony, despite the protests of Eric V. Thus the Saxon territories remained permanently separated.

The [[Electorate of Saxony]] was then merged with the much larger Wettinian [[Margraviate of Meissen]]; however, it used the higher-ranking title Electorate of Saxony and even the Ascanian coat-of-arms for the entire monarchy.<ref>The Ascanian coat-of-arms shows the Ascanian [[Barry (heraldry)#Barry, Paly, Bendy|barry]] of ten, in [[Sable (heraldry)|sable]] and [[Or (heraldry)|or]], covered by a crancelin of rhombs bendwise in [[Vert (heraldry)|vert]].</ref> Thus Saxony came to include [[Dresden]] and [[Meissen]]. Hence, the territory of the modern Free State of Saxony shares the name with the old Saxon stem duchy for historical and dynastic reasons rather than any significant ethnic, linguistic or cultural connection. In the 18th and 19th centuries Saxe-Lauenburg was colloquially called the [[Duchy of Lauenburg]], which was held in a personal union by the [[Electorate of Hanover]] from the 18th century to the Napoleonic wars, and in a personal union with Denmark (along with neighbouring [[Holstein]] and [[Schleswig]]) for much the 19th century. In 1876 it was absorbed into [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] as the [[Herzogtum Lauenburg|Duchy of Lauenburg district]] of the [[Province of Schleswig-Holstein]]).

=== Foundation of the second Saxon state ===
[[File:Locator Electoral Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire (1618).svg|right|thumb|The [[Electorate of Saxony]] within the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (1618)]]
Saxe-Wittenberg, mostly in modern [[Saxony-Anhalt]], became subject to the [[margravate of Meissen]], ruled by the [[House of Wettin|Wettin]] dynasty in 1423. This established a new and powerful state, occupying large portions of the present Free State of Saxony, Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Bavaria (Coburg and its environs). Although the centre of this state was far to the southeast of the former Saxony, it came to be referred to as '''Upper Saxony''' and then simply '''Saxony''', while the former Saxon territories in the north were now known as '''Lower Saxony''' (the modern term [[Niedersachsen]] deriving from this).

In 1485, Saxony was split in the [[Treaty of Leipzig]]. A collateral line of the Wettin princes received what later became [[Thuringia]] and founded several small states there (see ''[[Ernestine duchies]]''). Since these princes were allowed to use the Saxon coat of arms, in many towns of Thuringia, the coat of arms can still be found in historical buildings.

The remaining Saxon state became still more powerful, receiving [[Upper Lusatia|Upper]] and [[Lower Lusatia]] in the [[Peace of Prague (1635)]]. It also became known in the 18th century for its cultural achievements, although it was politically weaker than [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], states which oppressed Saxony from the north and south, respectively.

Between 1697 and 1763, two successive [[Electors of Saxony]] were also elected [[Kings of Poland]] in [[Personal union of Poland and Saxony|personal union]]. Many landmarks in Saxony date from this period and contain remnants of the former close Polish-Saxon relation, such as the [[coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] on the facades and in the interiors of palaces, churches, edifices, etc. (e.g. [[Zwinger (Dresden)|Zwinger]], [[Dresden Cathedral]], [[Moritzburg Castle]]), and on numerous mileposts, and the close political and cultural relationship persisted well into the 19th century, with Saxony being the place of preparations for the Polish [[Kościuszko Uprising]] against the [[Partitions of Poland|partitioning]] powers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dzieje.pl/aktualnosci/rocznica-insurekcji-kosciuszkowskiej|title=Insurekcja Kościuszkowska – ostatnia próba ratowania Rzeczpospolitej|website=Dzieje.pl|access-date=22 June 2024|language=pl}}</ref> and one of the chief destinations for Polish refugees from partitioned Poland, including the artistic and political elite, such as composer [[Frédéric Chopin]], war hero [[Józef Bem]] and writer [[Adam Mickiewicz]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Sadowski|first=Aleksander Marek|year=2022|title=Sachsen und Polen – Tausend Jahre Nachbarschaft / Polska i Saksonia – tysiąc lat sąsiedztwa|magazine=Polonus|language=de,pl|location=Ostritz|issue=5|page=39|issn=2701-6285}}</ref>

In 1756, Saxony joined a coalition of Austria, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]] against Prussia. [[Frederick II of Prussia]] chose to attack preemptively and invaded Saxony in August 1756, precipitating the [[Third Silesian War]] (part of the [[Seven Years' War]]). The Prussians quickly defeated Saxony and incorporated the [[Royal Saxon Army|Saxon army]] into the [[Prussian Army]]. At the end of the Seven Years' War, Saxony recovered its independence in the 1763 [[Treaty of Hubertusburg]].

===19th century===
[[File:Map-saxony1900.png|right|thumb|The Kingdom of Saxony after the [[Congress of Vienna]]]]
{{further|Kingdom of Saxony}}
In 1806, French Emperor [[Napoleon]] abolished the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and established the Electorate of Saxony as a kingdom in exchange for military support. The [[Prince-elector|Elector]] Frederick Augustus III accordingly became King [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]]. Frederick Augustus remained loyal to Napoleon during the wars that swept Europe in the following years; he was taken prisoner and his territories were declared forfeit by the allies in 1813, after the defeat of Napoleon. Prussia intended the annexation of Saxony but the opposition of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]], France, and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] to this plan resulted in the restoration of Frederick Augustus to his throne at the [[Congress of Vienna]] although he was forced to cede the northern part of the kingdom to Prussia, which led to the loss of nearly 60% of the Saxon territory,<ref>{{harvp|Pollock|Thomas|1952|p=486}}</ref> and 40% of its population. Most of these lands were merged with the [[Duchy of Magdeburg]], the [[Altmark]] and some smaller territories to become the Prussian [[Province of Saxony]], a predecessor of the modern state of [[Saxony-Anhalt]]. [[Lower Lusatia]] and part of the former Saxe-Wittenberg territory became part of the [[Province of Brandenburg]] and the northeastern part of [[Upper Lusatia]] became part of the [[Province of Silesia]]. The [[rump state|rump]] Kingdom of Saxony had roughly the same extent as the present state, albeit slightly smaller.
[[File:G5241.jpg|thumb|Saxony before the Congress of Vienna compared to present day Saxony]]

Meanwhile, in 1815, the Kingdom of Saxony joined the [[German Confederation]].<ref name="p510">{{harvp|Pollock|Thomas|1952|p=510}}</ref> In the politics of the Confederation, Saxony was overshadowed by Prussia and Austria. King [[Anthony of Saxony]] came to the throne of Saxony in 1827. Shortly thereafter, liberal pressures in Saxony mounted and broke out in revolt during 1830—a [[Revolutions of 1830|year of revolution]] in Europe.<ref name=p510/> The revolution in Saxony resulted in a constitution for the Kingdom of Saxony that served as the basis for its government until 1918.<ref name=p510/>

During the [[German revolutions of 1848–1849|1848–49 constitutionalist revolutions in Germany]], Saxony became a hotbed of revolutionaries, with anarchists such as [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and democrats including [[Richard Wagner]] and [[Gottfried Semper]] taking part in the [[May Uprising in Dresden]] in 1849. (Scenes of Richard Wagner's participation in the May 1849 uprising in Dresden are depicted in the 1983 movie ''[[Wagner&nbsp;(film)|Wagner]]'' starring [[Richard Burton]] as Richard Wagner.) The May uprising in Dresden forced King [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony]] to concede further reforms to the Saxon government.<ref name=p510/>

In 1854 Frederick Augustus II's brother, King [[John, King of Saxony|John of Saxony]], succeeded to the throne. A scholar, King John translated [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]].<ref name=p510/> King John followed a federalistic and pro-Austrian policy throughout the early 1860s until the outbreak of the [[Austro-Prussian War]]. During that war, Prussian troops overran Saxony without resistance and then invaded Austrian [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]].<ref>{{harvp|Pollock|Thomas|1952|pp=510–511}}</ref> After the war, Saxony was forced to pay an indemnity and to join the [[North German Confederation]] in 1867.<ref name="p511">{{harvp|Pollock|Thomas|1952|p=511}}</ref> Under the terms of the North German Confederation, Prussia took over control of the Saxon postal system, railroads, military and foreign affairs.<ref name=p511/> In the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, Saxon troops fought together with Prussian and other German troops against France.<ref name=p511/> In 1871, Saxony joined the newly formed [[German Empire]].<ref name=p511/>

===20th century===
[[File:Sasko1950.png|right|thumb|The Free State of Saxony 1945–1952]]
After King [[Frederick Augustus III of Saxony]] abdicated on 13 November 1918, Saxony, remaining a constituent state of Germany ([[Weimar Republic]]), became the Free State of Saxony under a new constitution enacted on 1 November 1920. In October 1923, when the [[Communist Party of Germany]] entered the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic]]-led government in Dresden with [[German October|hidden revolutionary intentions]], the Reich government under Chancellor [[Gustav Stresemann]] used a ''[[Reichsexekution]]'' to send troops into Saxony to remove the Communists from the government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sturm |first=Reinhard |date=23 December 2011 |title=Kampf um die Republik 1919–1923 |trans-title=Battle for the Republic 1919–1923 |url=https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus-zweiter-weltkrieg/dossier-nationalsozialismus/39531/kampf-um-die-republik-1919-1923/?p=all#node-content-title-21 |access-date=6 May 2023 |website=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung |language=de}}</ref> The state retained its name and borders during the Nazi era as a {{lang|de|[[Administrative divisions of Nazi Germany|Gau]]}} ([[Gau Saxony]]), but lost its quasi-autonomous status and its parliamentary democracy.

During [[World War II]], under the secret Nazi programme ''[[Aktion T4]]'', an estimated 15,000 people suffering from mental and physical disabilities, as well as a number of concentration camp inmates, were murdered at [[Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre|Sonnenstein killing centre]] near [[Pirna]]. Numerous subcamps of the [[Buchenwald concentration camp|Buchenwald]], [[Flossenburg concentration camp|Flossenburg]] and [[Gross-Rosen concentration camp|Gross-Rosen]] concentration camps were operated in Saxony.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aussenlager-buchenwald.de/|title=Buchenwald war überall|website=aussenlager-buchenwald.de|access-date=22 June 2024|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gedenkstaette-flossenbuerg.de/en/history/subcamps|title=Subcamps|website=KZ-Gedenkstätte Flossenbürg|access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.gross-rosen.eu/historia-kl-gross-rosen/filie-obozu-gross-rosen/|title=Subcamps of KL Gross-Rosen|website=Gross-Rosen Museum in Rogoźnica|access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref>

As the war drew to its end, U.S. troops under General [[George Patton]] occupied the western part of Saxony in April 1945, while [[Soviet occupation zone in Germany|Soviet troops occupied]] the eastern part. That summer, the entire state was handed over to Soviet forces as agreed in the [[London Protocol (1944)|London Protocol of September 1944]]. Britain, the US, and the USSR then negotiated Germany's future at the [[Potsdam Conference]]. Under the [[Potsdam Agreement]], all German territory East of the [[Oder-Neisse line]] was annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union, and, unlike in the aftermath of [[World War I]], the annexing powers were allowed to expel the inhabitants. During the following three years, [[Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II|Poland]] and [[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia expelled]] German-speaking people from their territories, and some of these expellees came to Saxony. Only a small area of Saxony lying east of the [[Neisse]] River and centred around the town of [[Bogatynia|Reichenau]] (Bogatynia) was annexed by Poland. Traditional close relations of Saxony with neighbouring German-speaking [[Egerland]] were thus completely destroyed, making the border of Saxony along the [[Ore Mountains]] a linguistic border.

Part of the former [[Free State of Prussia (1918-1933)|Prussian]] [[province of Lower Silesia]] lay west of the [[Oder-Neisse line]] and therefore was separated from the bulk of its former province; the [[Soviet Military Administration in Germany]] (SVAG) merged this territory into Saxony.<ref>Kosiński, Leszek (1960) [http://rcin.org.pl/Content/33932/WA51_50482_r1960-z2_Dokumentacja-Geogr.pdf <nowiki>"Pochodzenie terytorialne ludności Ziem Zachodnich w 1950 r. [Territorial origins of inhabitants of the Western Lands in year 1950]" (PDF). Dokumentacja Geograficzna (in Polish)</nowiki>]. Warsaw: PAN (Polish Academy of Sciences), Institute of Geography. 2: Tabela 1 (data by county) – via Repozytorium Cyfrowe Instytutów Naukowych.</ref> This former Silesian territory broadly corresponded with the Upper Lusatian territory annexed by Prussia in 1815.

On [[1946 Soviet occupation zone state elections|20 October 1946, SVAG organised elections for the Saxon state parliament]] ({{lang|de|Landtag}}), but many people were arbitrarily excluded from candidacy and suffrage, and the Soviet Union openly supported the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] (SED). The new minister-president [[Rudolf Friedrichs]] (SED), had been a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] until April 1946. He met his Bavarian counterparts in the U.S. zone of occupation in October 1946 and May 1947, but died suddenly in mysterious circumstances the following month. He was succeeded by [[Max Seydewitz]], a loyal follower of [[Joseph Stalin]].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}

The [[German Democratic Republic]] (East Germany), including Saxony, was established in 1949 out of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] zone of [[Occupied Germany]], becoming a [[State socialism|constitutionally socialist state]], part of [[COMECON]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]], under the leadership of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]]. In 1952 the government abolished the Free State of Saxony, and divided its territory into three {{lang|de|[[Administrative divisions of the German Democratic Republic#Division into Bezirke|Bezirke]]}}: [[Leipzig (Bezirk)|Leipzig]], [[Dresden (Bezirk)|Dresden]], and [[Karl-Marx-Stadt (Bezirk)|Karl-Marx-Stadt]] (formerly and currently [[Chemnitz]]). Areas around [[Hoyerswerda]] were also part of the [[Cottbus (Bezirk)|Cottbus Bezirk]].

The Free State of Saxony was reconstituted with slightly altered borders in 1990, following [[German reunification]]. Besides the formerly Silesian area of Saxony, which was mostly included in the territory of the new Saxony, the free state gained further areas north of [[Leipzig]] that had belonged to [[Saxony-Anhalt]] until 1952.