Editing Santo Domingo (section)

==History==
{{See also|History of the Dominican Republic|List of colonial buildings in Santo Domingo}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Santo Domingo}}
[[File:SD-037.jpg|thumb|Tomb that housed the remains of [[Christopher Columbus]] until 1795 (at the cathedral).]]
Prior to the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492, the native [[Taíno people]] populated the island which they called ''Kiskeya'' (mother of all lands) and ''Ayiti'' (the land of the high mountains), and which Columbus later named [[Hispaniola]], including the territory of today's [[Republic of Haiti]]. At the time, the island's territory consisted of five chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey.<ref name="Perez2011">{{cite book |last=Perez |first=Cosme E. |title=Quisqueya: un país en el mundo: La Revelacin̤ Maya Del 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkDQoaMzrk0C&pg=PA27 |access-date=4 June 2012 |date=20 December 2011 |publisher=Palibrio |isbn=978-1-4633-1368-5 |page=27 }}</ref> These were ruled respectively by ''[[cacique]]s'' (chiefs) Guacanagarix, Guarionex, [[Caonabo]], Bohechío, and Cayacoa.
[[File:SD RD 03 2017 2065.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Fortaleza Ozama|Ozama Fortress]] is one of the surviving sections of the Walls of Santo Domingo, which is recognized by UNESCO as being the oldest military construction of European origin in the Americas.<ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/526 |title=Colonial City of Santo Domingo |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303045438/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/526 |archive-date=3 March 2024 }}</ref>]]
Dating from 1493, when the Spanish settled on the island, and officially from 5 August 1498, Santo Domingo became the oldest European city in the Americas. [[Bartholomew Columbus]] founded the settlement and named it La Nueva Isabela, after [[La Isabela]], an earlier settlement in the north named after the Queen of Spain [[Isabella I]].<ref name="Greenberger2003">{{cite book |last=Greenberger |first=Robert |title=Juan Ponce de León: The Exploration of Florida and the Search for the Fountain of Youth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ov7PNM3NcC0C&pg=PA35 |access-date=4 June 2012 |date=1 January 2003 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3627-4 |page=35 }}</ref> In 1495 it was renamed "Santo Domingo", in honor of [[Saint Dominic]]. Santo Domingo came to be known as the "Gateway to the Caribbean" and the chief town in Hispaniola from then on.<ref name="BoltonMarshall2005">{{cite book |last1=Bolton |first1=Herbert E. |last2=Marshall |first2=Thomas Maitland |title=The Colonization of North America 1492 to 1783 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YN64ri8RH80C&pg=PA17 |access-date=4 June 2012 |date=30 April 2005 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-0-7661-9438-0 |page=17}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Expeditions which led to [[Juan Ponce de León|Ponce de León]]'s colonization of [[Puerto Rico]], [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]]'s colonization of [[Cuba]], [[Hernán Cortés]]' [[Fall of Tenochtitlan|conquest of Mexico]], and [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]]'s sighting of the Pacific Ocean were all launched from Santo Domingo.
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Santo Domingo - Museo de las Casas Reales 0298.JPG
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| footer            = Colonial era weapons and armor in [[Museo de las Casas Reales|Museum of the Royal Houses]].
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[[File:Wall surrounding Santo Domingo (3796294208).jpg|thumb|''Colonial Wall surrounding Santo Domingo'', in 1899, Allison V. Armour Expedition]]

In June 1502,<ref name="Clayton2011">{{cite book |last=Clayton |first=Lawrence A. |title=Bartolom de Las Casas and the Conquest of the Americas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP1WfJFLePsC&pg=PA19 |access-date=4 June 2012 |date=25 January 2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9427-3 |page=19 }}</ref> Santo Domingo was destroyed by a major hurricane, and the new Governor [[Nicolás de Ovando]] had it rebuilt on a different site on the other side of the [[Ozama River]].<ref>Meining 1986:9</ref><ref name="Floyd">{{cite book |last1=Floyd |first1=Troy |title=The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean, 1492–1526 |date=1973 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |location=Albuquerque |pages=55, 73 }}</ref> The original layout of the city and a large portion of its [[defensive wall]] can still be appreciated today throughout the Colonial Zone, declared a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]].

[[Diego Columbus]], Christopher Columbus's son, arrived in 1509, assuming the powers of Viceroy and admiral. In 1512, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] established a [[Real Audiencia]] with [[Juan Ortiz de Matienzo]], Marcelo de Villalobos, and [[Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón]] appointed as [[oidor|judges]] of appeal.  In 1514, Pedro Ibanez de Ibarra arrived with the [[Laws of Burgos]]. Diego de Medrano, from Soria, was appointed [[treasurer|royal treasurer]] of Santo Domingo.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Diego de Medrano {{!}} Real Academia de la Historia |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/76618/diego-de-medrano |access-date=3 February 2024 |website=dbe.rah.es |archive-date=3 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203172240/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/76618/diego-de-medrano |url-status=live }}</ref> Rodrigo de Alburquerque was named ''repartidor de indios'' and soon named ''[[juez de residencia|visitadores]]'' to enforce the laws.<ref name=Floyd/>{{rp|143–144,147}}

The first major [[1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt|slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo]] during 1521, when enslaved Africans led an uprising on Diego Colombus's sugar plantation. In 1586, the privateer [[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] [[Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)|captured the city]] and held it for ransom.<ref name=loc3>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/3.htm |title=Dominican Republic – THE FIRST COLONY |access-date=18 March 2009 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |archive-date=13 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213213711/http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A report which reached the English government in May 1586 states that from Santo Domingo he took away 1,200 Englishmen, Frenchmen, Flemings, and "Provincials out of prison, besides 800 of the countrey people".<ref>Public Record Office, SP 12/189, 42, letter of Nicholas Clever to Nicholas Turner, merchant, 26 May 1586.</ref> Drake's successful capture signaled the decline of Spain's dominion over Hispaniola, which was accentuated in the early 17th century by Spanish policies that resulted in the [[Devastations of Osorio|depopulation of most of the island]] outside of the capital. An expedition sent by [[Oliver Cromwell]] in 1655 [[Siege of Santo Domingo (1655)|attacked]] the city of Santo Domingo, but the English force was repulsed by a smaller force of local [[militia]]s<ref>{{cite book |title=America and the Americas: The United States in the Western Hemisphere |publisher=University of Georgia Press |url=https://archive.org/details/americaamericas00lang |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/americaamericas00lang/page/5 5] |isbn=9780820311036 |last1=Langley |first1=Lester D. |date=January 1989 }}</ref>{{efn|The English troops withdrew and took the less guarded [[Colony of Santiago|colony of Jamaica]] instead.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdvp3cGJUZoC&q=%22Santo+Domingo%22+1655+Penn+Venables&pg=PA148 |title=Wars of the Americas |last=Marley |first=David |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=1998 |isbn=9780874368376 |pages=148–149 }}</ref>}} and Santo Domingo suffered only 25 dead.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bradley |first1=Peter T |title=British Maritime Enterprise in the New World: From the Late Fifteenth to the Mid-eighteenth Century |page=152 }}</ref> In 1697, the [[Treaty of Ryswick]] included the acknowledgement by Spain of France's dominion over the Western third of the island, now [[Haiti]]. During the 18th century, [[privateer]]s from Santo Domingo patrolled the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]], capturing numerous enemy [[Merchant ship|merchantment]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ricourt |first1=Milagros |title=The Dominican Racial Imaginary: Surveying the Landscape of Race and Nation in Hispaniola |date=2016 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |page=57 }}</ref>
<!--This activity proved very beneficial to the Dominican privateers, as evidenced by the fact that Captain Lorenzo Daniel, aka Lorencin, captured more than 70 ships from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] during the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1762–63)|Anglo-Spanish War of 1762–1763]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roorda |first1=Eric Paul |title=Historical Dictionary of the Dominican Republic |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, MD |page=174 }}</ref>

The French imported slaves to work on plantations in their colonies in [[Saint-Domingue]], and they were exploited until the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. Former plantation slave [[Toussaint L'ouverture]] led an uprising of slaves in 1791, arming them with French weapons.{{cn}} They allied with Spain and raided the colony from Santo Domingo, but in 1794 the French revolutionary government capitulated to Toussaint and made him a Brigadier-General. The [[Haitian Revolution|Haitian revolutionaries]], now allied with France, fought against attempts by the [[Spanish Armed Forces|Spanish military]] to capture Saint-Domingue amidst the confusion.{{cn}}

However, the French failed to consolidate this cession, mainly because of the continued presence of British troops in Saint-Domingue (they remained until 1798). As the news of Santo Domingo's cession became known on the island, many Dominicans had sided with Britain against France, welcoming British ships into their ports, pledging allegiance to the British in exchange for protection, and enlisting in the [[British Armed Forces|British military]].<ref>{{cite book |title=An Islandwide Struggle for Freedom: Revolution, Emancipation, and Reenslavement in Hispaniola, 1789–1809 |page=93 }}</ref>-->

From 1795 to 1822, the city changed hands several times along with the colony it headed. It was ceded to France in 1795. The city was briefly captured by Haitian rebels in 1801, recovered by France in 1802, [[Siege of Santo Domingo (1805)|endured a failed invasion from Haiti]] in 1805, and was once again reclaimed by Spain in 1809. In 1821, Santo Domingo became the capital of an independent nation called the [[Republic of Spanish Haiti]] after the [[Criollo people|Criollo]] bourgeois within the country, led by [[José Núñez de Cáceres]], overthrew the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish crown]]. The nation was annexed by Haiti just two months later. The city and the colony lost much of their Spanish-born [[Peninsulars|peninsular]] population as a result of these events which caused a great deal of instability and unrest.<ref name=loc3/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://libraries.ucsd.edu/locations/sshl/resources/featured-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/dominican-republic/elections-and-events-17911849.html |title=Elections and Events 1791–1849 |access-date=18 March 2009 |publisher=[[University of California-San Diego]] |archive-date=3 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703025138/https://libraries.ucsd.edu/locations/sshl/resources/featured-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/dominican-republic/elections-and-events-17911849.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 2007, p. 70</ref>

On 27 February 1844, Santo Domingo was again the capital of a free nation, when it gained its independence from Haiti, led by Dominican nationalist [[Juan Pablo Duarte]]. The city was a prize fought over by various political factions over the succeeding decades of instability. In addition, the country had to fight multiple battles with Haiti; the [[Battle of 19 March]], [[Battle of 30 March]], [[Battle of Las Carreras]], and [[Battle of Beler]], are a few of the most prominent encounters, mentioned in the national anthem and with city streets named after them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colonialzone-dr.com/stodgo_map-lenin.pdf |title=City street map of Santo Domingo at www.colonialzone-dr.com |access-date=20 March 2009 |archive-date=24 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224042957/https://www.colonialzone-dr.com/stodgo_map-lenin.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Dominican victory in these engagements thwarted the advance of the Haitian army towards Santo Domingo during the [[Dominican War of Independence]].
<!--The mulatto landowner [[Buenaventura Báez]] emerged as one of the leaders of the [[Dominican War of Independence]], and he failed (in 1846) to convince France to establish a protectorate in the Dominican Republic.{{efn|He almost succeeded in persuading the United States to annex the Dominican Republic, but the bill to [[Annexation of Santo Domingo|annex Santo Domingo]] failed on the US Senate floor, embarrassing President [[Ulysses S. Grant]].}} Báez went on to serve as President from 1849 to 1853 and from 1856 to 1858,{{efn|Báez returned to the presidency from 1865 to 1866 (when he was overthrown in a military coup), [[Six Years' War|from 1868 to 1874]], and from 1876 to 1878.}} and he launched a naval offensive against Haiti.{{efn|His seamen under the French adventurer, Fagalde, raided the Haitian coasts, plundered seaside villages, as far as [[Dame-Marie, Grand'Anse|Cape Dame Marie]], and butchered crews of captured enemy ships.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baur |first1=John E. |title=Faustin Soulouque, Emperor of Haiti His Character and His Reign |date=1949 |page=143 }}</ref>}} The Dominican Navy attacked Haitian ports and ships in southern Haiti, effectively destroying the Haitian Navy.-->
In 1861, Spain returned to the country, having struck a bargain with Dominican dictator [[Pedro Santana]] whereby the latter was granted several honorific titles and privileges, in exchange for annexing the young nation back to Spanish rule. The [[Dominican Restoration War]] began in 1863 however, and in 1865 the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] Queen [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]] withdrew her soldiers from the island.
<!--The war left more than 50,000 people dead,<ref>{{cite book |title=Haïti République Dominicaine-Une Île pour deux (1804–1916) |date=26 March 2003 |isbn=9782811137113 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuWdtKnKz4gC&pg=PA18 }}</ref>  including 40,888 Spanish.<ref>{{cite book |title=World Epidemics: A Cultural Chronology of Disease from Prehistory to the Era of Zika, 2d ed. |isbn=9781476631066 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCpADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |last1=Snodgrass |first1=Mary Ellen |date=28 November 2017 }}</ref> Despite regaining its freedom, the capital would continue to experience difficulties, beginning when [[Pedro Antonio Pimentel]], the head of the provisional government at [[Santiago de los Caballeros]], attempted to march triumphantly upon Santo Domingo in August 1865 only to be checked by rival southern forces under [[José María Cabral]].-->
Over the next two-thirds of a century Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic went through many revolutions and power changes. Santo Domingo would experience the first of two [[United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)|U.S. invasions]] in 1916 when different leaders fought for presidential power and control of the city. The United States intervened, instituting a military leader, [[Harry Shepard Knapp]]. U.S. Marines and Dominicans clashed in Santo Domingo on 24–25 October 1916, resulting in the deaths of two U.S. Marines and three Dominicans.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dominican Republic (1902–present) |url=https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/western-hemisphere-region/dominican-republic-1902-present/ }}</ref>
<!--Eventually the Americans withdrew in 1924.{{efn|By the time U.S. forces were withdrawn in 1924, 144 Marines had been killed in action.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ayres |first1=Thomas |title=A Military Miscellany: From Bunker Hill to Baghdad: Important, Uncommon, and Sometimes Forgotten Facts,Lists, and Stories from America#s Military History |date=2008 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97IN9MNwM2YC&pg=PT211 |isbn=978-0-307-48825-1 |page=211 }}</ref> The Marines inflicted 950 Dominican casualties.<ref>{{cite web |title=THE CARIBBEAN WAR. The United States in the Caribbean, 1898–1998 |url=http://www.cercles.com/n5/dosal.pdf |publisher=University of South Florida }}</ref>}}-->
[[Image:Wea02216.jpg|thumb|Destruction of Santo Domingo after the hurricane]]
The city was struck by [[1930 Dominican Republic hurricane|hurricane San Zenón]] in 1930, which caused major damage and killed up to 8,000 people.<ref name="Derby2009">{{cite book |last=Derby |first=Lauren |title=The Dictator's Seduction: Politics and the Popular Imagination in the Era of Trujillo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nzqw4w91vucC&pg=PA66 |access-date=4 June 2012 |date=26 June 2009 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-4482-7 |page=66 }}</ref> After its rebuilding, Santo Domingo was known officially as Ciudad Trujillo due to the personality cult imposed by dictator [[Rafael Trujillo|Rafael Leónidas Trujillo]], who governed from 1930. Following his assassination in 1961 the city was renamed back to Santo Domingo.

In 1962, [[Juan Bosch (politician)|Juan Bosch]] was elected to the presidency. He was overthrown seven months later, resulting in a [[Dominican Civil War|civil war]] in the capital. [[Francisco Caamaño]] led the ''Constitucionalistas'' fighting to restore democracy. This would lead to the second U.S. invasion in 1965. U.S. troops engaged in heavy fighting in the streets of Santo Domingo against the ''Constitucionalistas'' on 15 and 16 June. [[Newsweek]] described it this way:
{{blockquote|Amid the clatter of automatic weapons, the sharp rattle of .50-caliber guns and the heavy explosions of bazookas and recoilless rifles, the paratroopers of the [[82nd Airborne Division|82nd U.S. Airborne Division]] blasted their way four city blocks into Caamaño's bastion. Heavy fire from U.S. guns across the Ozama River ringed rebel headquarters on El Conde Street, shattered buildings and started huge fires.}}

Eventually, the fighting would end on 31 August 1965, with 2,850 Dominicans and 44 American servicemen dead.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Bruce |title=Intervention in the Caribbean: The Dominican Crisis of 1965 |date=2015 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=9780813150024 |page=137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I5UfBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137 }}</ref>

The year 1992 marked the 500th anniversary, El Quinto Centenario, of Christopher Columbus' [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|Discovery of the Americas]]. The Columbus Lighthouse&nbsp;– [[Faro a Colón]]&nbsp;– was erected in Santo Domingo in honor of this occasion, with an approximate cost of 400 million [[Dominican peso]]s.<ref name=cultura/>