Editing San Juan, Puerto Rico (section)

== History ==
{{For timeline}}

=== Pre-Columbian era ===
{{See also|Taíno}}

The [[Taíno]] people were the original inhabitants of the area before the arrival of the [[European colonization of the Americas|Europeans]] to the island of [[Puerto Rico]] in 1493. Remains of a small indigenous fishing village have been found in [[Puerta de Tierra, San Juan|Puerta de Tierra]] where the [[Puerto Rico National Guard Museum]] stands today, however most archaeological sites in the region have been destroyed and lost throughout the colonial history.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Historia de Puerta de Tierra (San Juan)|url=http://www.puertadetierra.info/indicehist.asp|access-date=2022-02-12|website=www.puertadetierra.info|archive-date=June 1, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601164325/http://www.puertadetierra.info/indicehist.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> The area of San Juan used to be the boundary between the tribal regions (yucayeques) of ''Guaynabo'' and ''Haimanio'', led by the chiefs ([[Caciques in Puerto Rico|caciques]]) [[Mabo (cacique)|Mabo]] and [[Yuisa (cacique)|Yuisa]] (also known as Loaíza), respectively, at the time of the arrival of the [[Conquistador|Spanish conquistadors]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rico|first=Histopedia de Puerto|date=2019-07-19|title=Caciques y Yucayeques de Borikén|url=https://www.histopediadepuertorico.com/post/yucayeques-y-caciques-de-borikén|access-date=2022-02-12|website=Histopedia de Puerto Rico|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Cacicazgos de los taínos: Antecedentes y desarrollo|url=https://enciclopediapr.org/content/cacicazgos-tainos/|access-date=2022-02-12|website=EnciclopediaPR|language=en-US|archive-date=February 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212194639/https://enciclopediapr.org/content/cacicazgos-tainos/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Founding ===
[[File:Ponce de Leon house.JPG|thumb|The ruins of [[Juan Ponce de León]]'s residence at [[Caparra Archaeological Site|Caparra]]|left]]

In 1508, [[Juan Ponce de León]] founded the original settlement which he called [[Caparra Archaeological Site|'''Caparra''']]. It was named after a [[Cáparra|former Roman city]] in the province of [[Caceres (province)|Cáceres]] in Spain,<ref>Río-Miranda Alcón, J. La ciudad romana de Cáparra - Municipium Flavium Caparense. 2011</ref> the birthplace of [[Nicolás de Ovando]], then the Governor of Spain's Caribbean territories.<ref>"[[Guaynabo]] -- Encyclopædia Britannica" (with history of Puerto Rico),''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2006, ''Britannica.com'' webpage:[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038345/Guaynabo EB-Guaynabo-Puerto-Rico] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013063252/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9038345/Guaynabo |date=October 13, 2007 }}:names: [[Caparra Archaeological Site|Caparra]], the first Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico (1508).</ref> Today, it is part of the [[Pueblo Viejo, Guaynabo, Puerto Rico|Pueblo Viejo]] district of [[Guaynabo]], directly to the west of the modern municipality of San Juan. A year later, the settlement was moved to a site then called '''Puerto Rico''', Spanish for "rich port" or "good port", after its similar geographical features to the town of [[Puerto Rico de Gran Canaria]] in the [[Canary Islands]].<ref name="Caparra">{{cite web|publisher=National Park Service|title=Historic places in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands|url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nR/travel/prvi/pr27.htm|access-date=2007-05-02|archive-date=May 13, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513201507/http://www.cr.nps.gov/nR/travel/prvi/pr27.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Juan de Puerto Rico|local Catholic diocese]], the second oldest in the Americas and the oldest in the United States, was founded in the newly built settlement on August 8 of 1511.<ref>{{Cite web|title=American Latino Theme Study: Religion (U.S. National Park Service)|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/latinothemereligion.htm|access-date=2021-11-15|website=www.nps.gov|language=en}}</ref> In 1521, the newer settlement was given its formal name: '''''Ciudad de Puerto Rico de San Juan Bautista'''''. Many of the oldest European-founded institutions in the Western Hemisphere, such as the [[Galería Nacional|Santo Tomás de Aquino Convent]] and the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción Hospital, were established during this time in San Juan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marley|first=David|title=Historic Cities of the Americas|year=2005|isbn=1576070271|location=Santa Barbara, CA|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|pages=185+|language=English}}</ref>

The ambiguous use of ''San Juan Bautista'' and ''Puerto Rico'' for both the city and the island in time led to a reversal in practical use by most inhabitants: by 1746 the name for the city (Puerto Rico) had become that of the entire island, leading to the city being identified as ''Puerto Rico de Puerto Rico'' on maps of the era.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.nypl.org/mss/2272|work=New York Public Library|title=Nueva España documents and transcripts, ca. 1700-ca. 1799|access-date=November 21, 2015|archive-date=January 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102071102/http://archives.nypl.org/mss/2272|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="HistoryS.J.">{{cite web|title=Historia de San Juan de Puerto Rico |language=es |publisher=Vive San Juan |year=2006 |url=http://www.vivesanjuan.com/historia.htm |access-date=2007-05-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501112503/http://www.vivesanjuan.com/historia.htm |archive-date=May 1, 2007 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html Puerto Rico]. Russell Schimmer, Genocide Studies Program, Yale University. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330145912/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html |date=March 30, 2010 }}</ref>

=== Spanish Colonial era ===
{{See also|Captaincy General of Puerto Rico}}
San Juan, as a settlement of the [[Spanish Empire]], was used by merchant and military ships traveling from Spain as the first stopover in the [[Americas]]. Because of its prominence in the Caribbean, a network of fortifications was built to protect the transports of gold and silver from the [[New World]] to Europe. Because of the rich cargoes, San Juan became a target of the foreign powers of the time.<ref>{{cite web|title=San Juan National Historic Site|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/saju/faq.html#3|publisher=National Park Service|year=2000|access-date=2007-05-29|archive-date=March 13, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313142618/http://www.nps.gov/pwr/404.htm#3|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Staat van Amerika, map of San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1766.jpg|thumb|San Juan and bay, Puerto Rico, 1766|left]]
San Juan underwent attacks from the English led by [[Sir Francis Drake]] in 1595 (in what is known as the [[Battle of Puerto Rico]]) and by [[George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland|George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland]], in 1598. Artillery from San Juan's fort, [[Fort San Felipe del Morro|El Morro]], repelled Drake; however, Clifford managed to land troops and lay siege to the city.<ref name="history">{{cite web|title=History of Puerto Rico|publisher=Sol Boricua|year=2000|url=http://www.solboricua.com/history.htm|author=William Figueroa|language=es|access-date=2007-05-02|archive-date=March 6, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306100715/http://www.solboricua.com/history.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> After a few months of English occupation, Clifford was forced to abandon the siege when his troops began to suffer from exhaustion and sickness. In 1625 the city was sacked by Dutch forces led by Captain [[Boudewijn Hendricksz|Balduino Enrico]] (also known as Boudewijn Hendricksz/Bowdoin Henrick), but El Morro withstood the assault and was not taken. The Dutch were counterattacked by Captain [[Juan de Amézqueta]] and 50 members of the civilian militia on land and by the cannons of the Spanish troops in El Morro castle. The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico with a sword wound to his neck which he received from the hands of Amézqueta.<ref>[http://efemerides.zoomblog.com/archivo/2006/09/24/don-Juan-De-Haro-Y-Los-Holandeses-24-d.html "DON JUAN DE HARO Y LOS HOLANDESES" (24 de Septiembre de 1625)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202024647/http://efemerides.zoomblog.com/archivo/2006/09/24/don-Juan-De-Haro-Y-Los-Holandeses-24-d.html |date=February 2, 2015 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=January 2014}}

The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard. After a long battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city's militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion. On October 21, Enrico set [[La Fortaleza]] and the city ablaze. Captains Amézqueta and Andrés Botello decided to put a stop to the destruction and led 200 men in an attack against the enemy's front and rear guard. They drove Enrico and his men from their trenches and into the ocean in their haste to reach their ships.<ref name="PRH">[http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/2/2/7/12272/12272.htm The History of Puerto Rico From the Spanish Discovery to the American Occupation / Middeldyk, R.A. Van Identifier: etext12272 The History of Puerto Rico From the Spanish Discovery to the American Occupation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080122112400/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/2/2/7/12272/12272.htm |date=January 22, 2008 }}</ref>

The British [[Battle of San Juan (1797)|attack]] in 1797, during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], led by [[Ralph Abercromby|Sir Ralph Abercromby]] (who had just conquered [[Trinidad]]). His army laid siege to the city but was forced to withdraw in defeat as the Puerto Rican defenses proved more resilient than those of Trinidad. Various events and circumstances, including liberalized commerce with Spain, the opening of the island to immigrants as a direct result of the [[Royal Decree of Graces of 1815]], and the colonial revolutions, led to an expansion of San Juan and other Puerto Rican settlements in the late 18th and early 19th century.

=== Spanish-American War ===
{{Main|Puerto Rico campaign}}
[[File:Bombardment of El Morro in 1898.jpg|left|thumb|Bombardment of [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro|El Morro]] in 1898]]

On May 8, 1898, United States Navy ships, among them {{USS|Detroit|C-10|6}}, {{USS|Indiana|BB-1|6}}, {{USS|New York|ACR-2|6}}, {{USS|Amphitrite|BM-2|6}}, {{USS|Terror|BM-4|6}} and {{USS|Montgomery|C-9|6}}, commanded by [[Rear Admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral]] [[William T. Sampson]] arrived at San Juan Bay.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.tripod.com/~adjuntas1/guerra1.html|author=José Oquendo|publisher=Historia de Adjuntas, Puerto Rico|title=1898 - Adjuntas en la Guerra Hispanoamericana|access-date=2006-10-10|language=es|archive-date=March 30, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330055709/http://adjuntas1.tripod.com/guerra1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/Carta.htm|title=Erwin Letter from US Marine Alden Morse, at the USS New York, relating the bombing of San Juan del 12 Mayo 1898|author=Miguel J. Hernández|publisher=Coquí.Net|access-date=2007-05-08|archive-date=March 1, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301162237/http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/Carta.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> {{USS|Yale|1888|6}} captured the Spanish freighter ''Rita'' in San Juan Bay, thus being the first hostile encounter between the warring sides in Puerto Rico. On May 9, ''Yale'' fought a brief battle with an [[auxiliary cruiser]] of Spain, name unknown, resulting in a Spanish victory. Around this time, Captain [[Ángel Rivero Méndez]] was assigned the command of the Spanish forces in the fortress of [[Castillo San Cristóbal (San Juan)|San Cristóbal]] in San Juan. On May 10, ''Yale'' returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire upon ''Yale'' using an Ordoñez 15-centimeter cannon, thus becoming the first attack against the Americans in Puerto Rico during the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref name="GHA" />

For his actions, Captain Rivero-Méndez was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Mérito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.<ref name="GHA">{{cite web|access-date=2006-10-10|url=http://members.tripod.com/~adjuntas1/guerra1.html|title=1898 - Adjuntas en la Guerra Hispanoamericana|language=es|archive-date=March 30, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330055709/http://adjuntas1.tripod.com/guerra1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The residents of San Juan were furious with Rivero and blamed him for the destruction caused to their city by the American bombardments. Nothing came of those accusations and Capt. Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris of 1898]] was signed.<ref name="GHA"/>

On July 25, General [[Nelson A. Miles]] landed at [[Guánica]] (in southwestern Puerto Rico) with 3,300&nbsp;soldiers in what was known as the [[Puerto Rican Campaign]]. The American troops found some resistance and engaged the Spanish and Puerto Rican troops in battle, the most notable of these the battles of [[Battle of Yauco|Yauco]] and [[Battle of Asomante|Asomante]]. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, 1898, after President [[William McKinley]] and French Ambassador [[Jules Cambon]], acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an [[armistice]].<ref name="COPRSAW">{{cite web|access-date=2008-08-04|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html|title=Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish–American War|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War|publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress|archive-date=January 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104123909/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Karl Stephen Herrman |title=From Yauco to Las Marias a Recent Campaign in Puerto Rico |year=2004 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |page=2|isbn=1-4191-2123-5}}</ref> Spain ceded the island to the United States later the same year by signing the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]].

=== 20th-century ===
[[File:Detroit Photographic Company (0766).jpg|thumb|[[Plaza de Armas, San Juan|Plaza de Armas]], San Juan, ca. 1900|left]][[Camp Las Casas]], located in the district of [[Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico|Santurce]], served as the main training camp for the Puerto Rican soldiers prior to World War I and World War II; the majority of the men trained in this facility were assigned to the "Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry" which was renamed the [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|65th Infantry Regiment]] of the United States Army by the Reorganization Act of June 4, 1920. The 65th Infantry was deactivated in 1956 and became the only unit ever to be transferred from an active Army component to the [[Puerto Rico National Guard]].<ref name="PRR">{{cite web|url=http://www.valerosos.com/65thpg1.htm|title=History of the 65th Infantry 1898 to 1946 page 1|access-date=May 23, 2015|archive-date=February 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202021256/http://www.valerosos.com/65thpg1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lieutenant [[Teófilo Marxuach]] (retired as a Lieutenant Colonel), a native of [[Arroyo, Puerto Rico]], fired what is considered to be the first shot of World War I fired by the regular armed forces of the United States against any ship flying the colors of the [[Central Powers]].<ref name="USNI">"US Naval Institute Proceedings"; "A Breach of Neutrality"; by: Lt. Isaiah Olch, US Navy; Vol. 62; July - December 1936</ref> Marxuach, who was a member of the "Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry" and Officer of the Day, on March 25, 1915, opened fire on the ''Odenwald'', an armed German supply vessel, when it was trying to force its way out of San Juan's bay.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news|title=CALLS ODENWALD AFFAIR AN ATTACK; Fired On Without Warning Shot, Germany Asserts, Contradicting San Juan Commander. SAYS SHE WAS UNDULY HELD Violated Clearance to Elude Enemy Cruisers That Had Been Warned She Was About to Sail.|date=April 7, 1915|work=The New York Times|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B00EFDA1E3EE033A25754C0A9629C946496D6CF|access-date=2008-08-10|archive-date=October 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003180211/https://www.nytimes.com/1915/04/07/archives/calls-odenwald-affair-an-attack-fired-on-without-warning-shot.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The shots ordered by Lt. Marxuach were the first fired by the United States in World War I.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://houseofpuertorico.com/articles/PR-A_Commonwealth.htm|title=PR - A Commonwealth of the USA|access-date=May 23, 2015|archive-date=February 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203205536/http://houseofpuertorico.com/articles/PR-A_Commonwealth.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1919, [[Félix Rigau Carrera]], "El Aguila de Sabana Grande" (The Eagle from [[Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico|Sabana Grande]]), the first Puerto Rican pilot, became the first native Puerto Rican to fly an aircraft in the island when he flew his [[Curtiss JN-4]] from Las Casas. At the time, the area was used by the military as an air base and it was also Puerto Rico's first commercial airport, and Rigau Carrera was allowed to perform his historic flight from the airfield.<ref name="EM">"El Mundo"; "Fallece El Aguila - Fue Primer Boricua Manejo Avion en la Isla" (Spanish); by: Malen Rojas Daporte; October 20, 1954; Number 13,448</ref> Camp Las Casas was eventually closed down, and in 1950 a public housing project by the name of [[Residencial Las Casas|Residencial Fray Bartolome de Las Casas]] was constructed on its former location.

On January 2, 1947, the people of San Juan elected [[Felisa Rincón de Gautier]] (also known as Doña Fela) (1897–1994) as their mayor. Thus, she became the first woman to be elected as the mayor of a capital city in any of the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.zonai.com/promociones/biografias/0101/felisa.asp |title=''El Nuevo Dia'' |access-date=May 11, 2009 |archive-date=May 2, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502094815/http://www.zonai.com/promociones/biografias/0101/felisa.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Cold War]] era, she ordered the establishment of the island's first Civil Defense system under the directorship of Colonel [[Gilberto José Marxuach]] (Teófilo's son).<ref>"heroe del 65 Satisfecho de Haber Cumplido su Deber"; ''El Mundo''; May 2, 1952</ref> Rincón de Gautier served as mayor until January 2, 1969.
On October 30, 1950, San Juan was the scene of the [[San Juan Uprising]], one of many uprisings which occurred in various towns and cities in Puerto Rico, by the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]] against the governments of Puerto Rico and the United States. Among the uprising's main objective was to attack La Fortaleza and the [[Jose V. Toledo Federal Building and United States Courthouse|United States Federal Court House Building]] in [[Old San Juan]]. The "La Fortaleza battle", which ensued between the nationalists and the police lasted 15 minutes and ended when four of the five attackers were killed.<ref name="Page 2">''El ataque Nacionalista a La Fortaleza''; by [[Pedro Aponte Vázquez]]; Page 2; Publisher: Publicaciones RENÉ; {{ISBN|978-1-931702-01-0}}</ref>

=== 21st-century ===
San Juan has experienced periods of both stagnation and development in the recent years. [[Gentrification]] has been noticeable in areas of the city such as [[Loíza Street]] in [[Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico|Santurce]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-11-11 |title=A Historic Road Takes an Online Detour in "La Calle Loíza" |url=https://globalvoices.org/2012/11/11/a-historic-road-takes-an-online-detour-in-la-calle-loiza/ |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=Global Voices |language=en}}</ref> and [[Santa Rita (Hato Rey)|Santa Rita]] in Río Piedras.<ref>{{Cite web |title=¿Urbanismo neoliberal o urbanismo contestatario?: una autoetnografía en un Río Piedras en deterioro y en proyectos de autogestión |url=https://www.ingeniosupr.com/vol-5-1/2018/10/13/urbanismo-neoliberal-o-urbanismo-contestatario-una-autoetnografa-en-un-ro-piedras-en-deterioro-y-en-proyectos-de-autogestin |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=[IN]Genios |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Parga |first=Orlando |date=2022 |title=La "gentrificación" de Puerto Rico |work=El Nuevo Día |url=https://www.pressreader.com/puerto-rico/el-nuevo-dia1/20220329/284060555267986}}</ref> In recent years the city has been the location of multiple strikes and protests, such as the [[United States Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico|2001 protests]] against the [[United States Navy]] in the island municipality of [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]], the [[2010–2011 University of Puerto Rico strikes|2010 and 2011 University of Puerto Rico strikes]], and the [[Telegramgate|2019 protests]] against Governor [[Ricardo Rosselló]] which resulted in his resignation.

On September 20, 2017, [[Hurricane Maria]] made a direct impact in Puerto Rico, causing widespread damage and a collapse of the infrastructure in San Juan and the rest of Puerto Rico. The damage caused in 2017 was extensive, affecting the electricity, potable water supplies, transportation, and communication, but significant progress had been made in the capital by April 2019, and particularly by October 2019. This was significant for tourism, which had rebounded by October of that year and was close to the pre-Maria era.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.viahero.com/travel-to-puerto-rico/puerto-rico-tourism-update |title=Nearly two years after Hurricane Maria devastation, Puerto Rico welcomes record number of tourists |date=2 April 2019 |publisher=ViaHero |access-date=16 October 2019 |quote=Almost all of Puerto Rico's hotels are open for business. |archive-date=November 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127164436/https://www.viahero.com/travel-to-puerto-rico/puerto-rico-tourism-update |url-status=live }}</ref>

San Juan today remains an important cultural, financial and industrial center not only of Puerto Rico but of the Caribbean region. As the biggest industrial center of Puerto Rico, it is the home of industries such as tobacco processors, breweries, refining facilities for petroleum and sugar, and distillers of rum as well as manufacturers of metal products, cement, pharmaceuticals, and clothing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Port of San Juan |url=http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/PRI_Port_of_San_Juan_226.php |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=World Port Source |archive-date=June 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629222912/http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/PRI_Port_of_San_Juan_226.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Puerto Rico Convention Center]], opened in 2005, is the largest of its kind in the Caribbean and one of the most advanced in the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puerto Rico Convention Center |url=https://www.asmglobal.com/p/our-portfolio/convention-exhibition-centers/puerto-rico-convention-center |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=www.asmglobal.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Puerto Rico Convention Center |url=https://prconvention.com/en/ |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=Puerto Rico Convention Center |language=en-US}}</ref>