Editing Sailing ship (section)

== History ==
{{See|Ship#History}}
By the [[Age of Discovery]]—<nowiki/>starting in the 15th century—square-rigged, multi-masted vessels were the norm and were guided by navigation techniques that included the magnetic compass and making sightings of the sun and stars that allowed transoceanic voyages. The Age of Sail reached its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries with large, heavily armed [[Ship of the line|battleships]] and [[Merchant ship|merchant sailing ships]].

Sailing and [[steamship|steam ships]] coexisted for much of the 19th century. The steamers of the early part of the century had very poor fuel efficiency and were suitable only for a small number of roles, such as towing sailing ships and providing short route passenger and mail services. Both sailing and steam ships saw large technological improvements over the century. Ultimately the two large stepwise improvements in fuel efficiency of [[Steamship#Long-distance commercial steamships|compound]] and then [[Steamship#Triple expansion engines|triple-expansion]] steam engines made the steamship, by the 1880s, able to compete in the vast majority of trades. Commercial sail still continued into the 20th century, with the last ceasing to trade by {{circa|1960}}.<ref name="Griffiths">{{cite book |last=Griffiths|first=Denis|editor1-first=Robert|editor1-last= Gardiner|editor2-first=Dr. Basil|editor2-last= Greenhill
|title=The Advent of Steam - The Merchant Steamship before 1900 |publisher=Conway Maritime Press Ltd |date=1993 |pages=106–126|chapter=Chapter 5: Triple Expansion and the First Shipping Revolution |isbn=0-85177-563-2}}</ref>{{rp|106–111}}<ref name="Gardiner and Greenhill 1993">{{cite book |last1=Gardiner |first1=Robert J |last2=Greenhill |first2=Basil |title=Sail's Last Century : the Merchant Sailing Ship 1830-1930 |date=1993 |publisher=Conway Maritime Press |location=London |isbn=0-85177-565-9}}</ref>{{rp|89}}

=== South China Sea and Austronesia ===
{{Main|Austronesian maritime trade network|Lashed-lug boat|Outrigger boat|Junk (ship)}}
[[File:Atlas pittoresque pl 096.jpg|thumb|[[Fiji#Early settlement|Fijian]] voyaging [[outrigger boat]] with a [[crab claw sail]], an example of a typical [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian vessel]] with [[outrigger]]s and a [[fore-and-aft]] sail]]
[[File:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|A carved stone relief panel showing a [[Borobudur ship]] (Austronesian) from 8th century [[Java]], depicted with [[outrigger]]s and fore-and-aft [[tanja sail]]s]]
[[File:Chinese Junk Keying.jpg|thumb|Chinese junk ''[[Keying (ship)|Keying]]'' with a center-mounted rudder post, {{circa|1848}}]]
Early sea-going sailing vessels were used by the [[Austronesian peoples]]. The invention of [[catamaran]]s, [[outrigger ship|outriggers]], and [[crab claw sail]]s enabled the [[Austronesian Expansion]] at around 3000 to 1500 BC. From Taiwan, they rapidly colonized the islands of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], then sailed further onwards to [[Micronesia]], [[Island Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]], and [[Madagascar]]. Austronesian rigs were distinctive in that they had spars supporting both the upper and lower edges of the sails (and sometimes in between), in contrast to western rigs which only had a spar on the upper edge.<ref name="Doran1974">{{cite journal |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin Jr. |title=Outrigger Ages |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |date=1974 |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=130–140 |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_83_1974/Volume_83%2C_No._2/Outrigger_ages%2C_by_Edwin_Doran_Jnr.%2C_p_130-140/p1 |access-date=2019-09-26 |archive-date=2019-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608182436/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_83_1974/Volume_83,_No._2/Outrigger_ages,_by_Edwin_Doran_Jnr.,_p_130-140/p1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref>

Large Austronesian trading ships with as many as four sails were recorded by [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC – 220 AD) scholars as the ''[[K'un-lun po|kunlun bo]]'' or ''K'un-lun po'' (崑崙舶, lit. "ship of the [[Kunlun (mythology)|Kunlun]] people"). They were booked by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims for passage to Southern India and Sri Lanka.<ref name="Kang">{{cite journal |last1=Kang |first1=Heejung |title=Kunlun and Kunlun Slaves as Buddhists in the Eyes of the Tang Chinese |journal=Kemanusiaan |date=2015 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=27–52 |url=http://web.usm.my/kajh/vol22_1_2015/KAJH%2022(1)%20Art%202%20(27-52)%20(1).pdf |access-date=2019-09-29 |archive-date=2023-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118114439/http://web.usm.my/kajh/vol22_1_2015/KAJH%2022(1)%20Art%202%20(27-52)%20(1).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bas relief]]s of large Javanese [[outrigger boat|outriggers]] ships with various configurations of tanja sails are also found in the [[Borobudur]] temple, dating back to the 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite news| newspaper=The Telegraph | title= A strange kind of dream come true| first=Elizabeth |last=Grice |date=17 March 2004|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3613971/A-strange-kind-of-dream-come-true.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3613971/A-strange-kind-of-dream-come-true.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=3 November 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="haddon">{{cite book |last1=Haddon |first1=A.C. |title=The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes |date=1920 |publisher=London, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |url=https://archive.org/details/outriggersofindo00hadduoft}}</ref>{{rp|100}}

By the 10th century AD, the [[Song dynasty]] started building the first Chinese seafaring [[Junk (ship)|junks]], which adopted several features of the ''K'un-lun po''.<ref name="Pham" />{{rp|18}} The [[junk rig]] in particular, became associated with Chinese coast-hugging trading ships.<ref name="Paine_2013">{{cite book|title=The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World|last=Paine|first=Lincoln|publisher=Random House, LLC|year=2013|location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Worcester 1947">{{Cite book|title=The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze, A Study in Chinese Nautical Research, Volume I: Introduction; and Craft of the Estuary and Shanghai Area|last=Worcester|first=G. R. G.|publisher=Order of the Inspector General of Customs|year=1947|location=Shanghai}}</ref>{{rp|22}}<ref name="Pham">{{cite book |last1=Pham |first1=Charlotte Minh-Hà L. |url=https://www.academia.edu/10065854 |title=Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific |date=2012 |publisher=UNESCO Bangkok, Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education |isbn=978-92-9223-414-0 |location=Bangkok |chapter=Unit 14: Asian Shipbuilding (Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage) |access-date=2022-05-08 |archive-date=2023-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711184234/https://www.academia.edu/10065854 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|20-21}} Junks in China were constructed from teak with pegs and nails; they featured [[Compartment (ship)|watertight]] compartments and acquired center-mounted [[tiller]]s and [[rudder]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC&pg=PA216|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500|last=Hall|first=Kenneth R.|date=2010-12-28|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=9780742567627|pages=216|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232127/https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> These ships became the basis for the development of Chinese warships during the [[Mongol]] [[Yuan dynasty]], and were used in the unsuccessful [[Mongol invasions of Japan]] [[Mongol invasion of Java|and Java]].<ref name="Worcester 1947"/>{{rp|22}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nugroho |first=Irawan Djoko |title=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim |publisher=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti |year=2011 |isbn=978-602-9346-00-8 |location=Jakarta |pages=128–129}}</ref>

The [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) saw the use of junks as long-distance trading vessels. Chinese Admiral [[Zheng He]] reportedly sailed to India, Arabia, and southern Africa on a trade and diplomatic mission.<ref name="Wade">{{cite journal |last1=Wade |first1=Geoff |title=The Zheng He Voyages: A Reassessment |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=2005 |volume=78 |issue=1 (288) |pages=37–58 |jstor=41493537 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/hong-kong/articles/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-junk/|title=A Brief History Of The Chinese Junk|last=Gao|first=Sally|website=Culture Trip|date=16 October 2016|access-date=2019-06-02|archive-date=2019-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602160146/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/hong-kong/articles/a-brief-history-of-the-chinese-junk/|url-status=live}}</ref> Literary lore suggests that his largest vessel, the "[[Chinese treasure ship|Treasure Ship]]", measured {{Convert|400|ft|m|abbr=}} in length and {{Convert|150|ft|m|abbr=}} in width,<ref name="Church">{{cite journal |last1=Church |first1=Sally K. |date=2005 |title=Zheng He: an investigation into the plausibility of 450-ft treasure ships |journal=Monumenta Serica |volume=53 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.1179/mon.2005.53.1.001 |jstor=40727457 |s2cid=161434221 }}</ref> whereas modern research suggests that it was unlikely to have exceeded {{Convert|70|m|ft|abbr=}} in length.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ling |first1=Xue |date=2022-07-12 |title=郑和大号宝船到底有多大？ (How big was Zheng He's large treasure ship?) |work=扬子晚报 (Yangtze Evening News) |editor1-last=Li |editor1-first=Ma |url=http://epaper.tyrbw.com/tywb/resfile/2022-07-12/21/tywb2022071221.pdf |editor2-last=Limin |editor2-first=Wu |editor3-last=Xiuling |editor3-first=Pei |access-date=2022-11-06 |archive-date=2023-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522173024/http://epaper.tyrbw.com/tywb/resfile/2022-07-12/21/tywb2022071221.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Mediterranean and Baltic ===
{{Further|Ancient Egyptian navy|Ships of ancient Rome|Medieval ships}}
[[File:Ulysse bateau.jpg|thumb|right|Roman ship with sails, oars, and a steering oar]]
Sailing ships in the Mediterranean region date back to at least 3000 BC, when [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] used a bipod mast to support a single [[Square rig|square sail]] on a vessel that mainly relied on multiple paddlers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://brewminate.com/from-river-to-sea-evidence-for-ancient-egyptian-seafaring-ships/ |title=From River to Sea: Evidence for Ancient Egyptian Seafaring Ships |date=24 June 2021 |access-date=2022-08-17 |archive-date=2022-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817090819/https://brewminate.com/from-river-to-sea-evidence-for-ancient-egyptian-seafaring-ships/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2022|reason=the reference does not support "mainly relied on multiple paddlers" - the word "paddle" is not used in this ref - nor is "bipod" used, as in "bipod mast".}} Later the mast became a single pole, and paddles were supplanted with oars. Such vessels plied both the Nile and the Mediterranean coast. The [[Minoan civilization]] of [[Crete]] may have been the world's first [[thalassocracy]] brought to prominence by sailing vessels dating to before 1800 BC (Middle Minoan IIB).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bonn-Muller |first1=Eti |title=First Minoan Shipwreck |url=https://archive.archaeology.org/1001/etc/minoan_shipwreck.html |website=Archaeology Magazine |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |access-date=31 August 2021 |archive-date=31 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831183559/https://archive.archaeology.org/1001/etc/minoan_shipwreck.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 1000 BC and 400 AD, the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] developed ships that were powered by square sails, sometimes with oars to supplement their capabilities. Such vessels used a [[Rudder#Steering oar/gear|steering oar]] as a rudder to control direction. 

Starting in the 8th century in Denmark, [[Viking]]s were building [[Clinker (boat building)|clinker]]-constructed [[longship]]s propelled by a single, square sail, when practical, and oars, when necessary.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Vikings|last=Magnússon, Magnús|isbn=978-0750980777|location=Stroud [England]|pages=90|oclc=972948057|date = 2016-10-06}}</ref> A related craft was the [[knarr]], which plied the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[North Sea]]s, using primarily sail power.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkQrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA322|title=Routledge Revivals: Trade, Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages (2000): An Encyclopedia|last1=Friedman|first1=John Block|last2=Figg|first2=Kristen Mossler|date=2017-07-05|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781351661324|pages=322|language=en|access-date=2019-07-10|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232128/https://books.google.com/books?id=kkQrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA322#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The windward edge of the sail was stiffened with a [[beitass]], a pole that fitted into the lower corner of the sail, when sailing close to the wind.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzoRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT55|title=The Medieval Soldier|last=Norman|first=Vesey|date=2010|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=9781783031368|language=en|access-date=2019-07-10|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232127/https://books.google.com/books?id=UzoRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT55#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Indian Ocean ===
{{See|Dhow#History}}
[[File:Bgl3t.jpg|thumb|A traditional [[Maldives|Maldivian]] [[Baghlah]] with a [[fore-and-aft rig|fore-and-aft]] [[lateen|lateen rig]]]]

India's maritime history began during the 3rd millennium BCE when inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiated maritime trading contact with Mesopotamia. Indian kingdoms such as the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] from as early as 2nd century CE are believed to have had sailing ships. One of the earliest instances of documented evidence of Indian sailing ship building comes from the mural of three-masted ship in the Ajanta caves that date back to 400-500 CE.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pamulaparthy |first=Sweekar Bhushan |title=Ancient Indian Ship |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9103/ancient-indian-ship/ |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205220135/https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9103/ancient-indian-ship/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wright |first=Colin |title=Ajanta: Boat from right wall of Cave II. |url=https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000002213u00025000.html |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=www.bl.uk |archive-date=2022-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205220138/https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000002213u00025000.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Indian Ocean]] was the venue for increasing trade between India and Africa between 1200 and 1500. The vessels employed would be classified as [[dhow]]s with [[Lateen|lateen rigs]]. During this interval such vessels grew in capacity from 100 to 400 [[tonne]]s. Dhows were often built with teak planks from India and Southeast Asia, sewn together with coconut husk fiber—no nails were employed. This period also saw the implementation of center-mounted rudders, controlled with a tiller.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niqhizFDhKUC&pg=PA352|title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Brief Edition, Volume I: To 1550: A Global History|last1=Bulliet|first1=Richard W.|last2=Crossley|first2=Pamela Kyle|last3=Headrick|first3=Daniel R.|last4=Hirsch|first4=Steven|last5=Johnson|first5=Lyman|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9780618992386|pages=352–3|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232128/https://books.google.com/books?id=niqhizFDhKUC&pg=PA352|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Global exploration ===
{{Main|Carrack|Caravel}}
[[File:Nao Victoria.jpg|thumb|Replica of [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s [[carrack]], ''[[Victoria (ship)|Victoria]]'', which completed the first global circumnavigation.]]
Technological advancements that were important to the Age of Discovery in the 15th century were the adoption of the [[Compass|magnetic compass]] and advances in ship design.

The compass was an addition to the ancient method of navigation based on sightings of the sun and stars. The compass was invented by Chinese. It had been used for navigation in China by the 11th century and was adopted by the Arab traders in the Indian Ocean. The compass spread to Europe by the late 12th or early 13th century.<ref name="Merson_1990">{{cite book|title=The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World|url=https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers|url-access=registration|last=Merson|first=John|publisher=The Overlook Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-87951-397-9|location=Woodstock, NY}}</ref> Use of the compass for navigation in the Indian Ocean was first mentioned in 1232.<ref name="Paine_2013" /> The Europeans used a "dry" compass, with a needle on a pivot. The compass card was also a European invention.<ref name="Paine_2013" />

At the beginning of the 15th century, the [[carrack]] was the most capable European ocean-going ship. It was [[Carvel (boat building)|carvel-built]] and large enough to be stable in heavy seas. It was capable of carrying a large cargo and the provisions needed for very long voyages. Later carracks were square-rigged on the [[foremast]] and [[mainmast]] and lateen-rigged on the [[mizzenmast]]. They had a high rounded [[stern]] with large [[aftcastle]], [[forecastle]] and [[bowsprit]] at the stem. As the predecessor of the [[galleon]], the carrack was one of the most influential ship designs in history; while ships became more specialized in the following centuries, the basic design remained unchanged throughout this period.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of Shipwrecks |first=A. |last=Konstam |year=2002 |location=New York | publisher=Lyons Press |pages=77–79 |isbn=1-58574-620-7}}</ref>

Ships of this era were only able to sail approximately 70° into the wind and [[Tacking (sailing)|tacked]] from one side to the other across the wind with difficulty, which made it challenging to avoid shipwrecks when near shores or shoals during storms.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezgq0VnV5XQC|title=To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails|last=Block|first=Leo|date=2003|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=9781557502094|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232129/https://books.google.com/books?id=ezgq0VnV5XQC|url-status=live}}</ref> Nonetheless, such vessels reached India around Africa with [[Vasco da Gama]],<ref name="Foundations">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA184|title=Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1850|last1=Diffie|first1=Bailey W.|last2=Winius|first2=George D.|year=1977|isbn=978-0-8166-0850-8|series=Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion|volume=1|page=177|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232128/https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA184#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> the Americas with [[Christopher Columbus]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300170283/mutiny-and-its-bounty |title=Mutiny and Its Bounty: Leadership Lessons from the Age of Discovery |last1=Murphy |first1=Patrick J. |last2=Coye |first2=Ray W. |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-17028-3 |access-date=2019-06-23 |archive-date=2019-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526194259/https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300170283/mutiny-and-its-bounty |url-status=live }}</ref> and around the world under [[Ferdinand Magellan]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe |last=Bergreen |first=Laurence |date=2003 |publisher=Morrow |isbn=0066211735 |edition=1st |location=New York |oclc=52047431 |url=https://archive.org/details/overedgeofworl00berg }}</ref>

=== 1700 to 1850 ===
[[File:H.M.S. Mars and the French '74 Hercule off Brest, 21st April 1798.jpg|thumb|1798 sea battle between a French and British [[man-of-war]]]]
[[File:Portrait of an American Clipper Ship.jpeg|thumb|A late-19th-century American [[clipper]] [[Full-rigged ship|ship]]]]
[[File:Preussen - StateLibQld 70 73320.jpg|thumb|The five-masted {{ship||Preussen|ship|2}} was the largest sailing ship ever built.]]
[[File:FMIB 37320 Schooner Sept-Mats nord-americain.jpeg|thumb|[[Schooner]]s became favored for some coast-wise commerce after 1850—they enabled a small crew to handle sails.]]
Sailing ships became longer and faster over time, with ship-rigged vessels carrying taller masts with more square sails. Other sail plans emerged, as well, that had just fore-and-aft sails ([[schooner]]s), or a mixture of the two ([[brigantine]]s, [[barque]]s and [[barquentine]]s).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-QvjRbK0DAC|title=A Short History of the Sailing Ship|last1=Anderson|first1=Romola|last2=Anderson|first2=R. C.|date=2003-09-01|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=9780486429885|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232129/https://books.google.com/books?id=h-QvjRbK0DAC|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Warships ====
{{See|Warship#The Age of Sail|Naval tactics in the Age of Sail}}
[[Cannons]] were introduced in the 14th century, but did not become common at sea until they could be reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a ship required to carry a large number of cannon made oar-based propulsion impossible, and warships came to rely primarily on sails. The sailing [[man-of-war]] emerged during the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__f6BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA63|title=How Britannia came to Rule the Waves|last=Kingston|first=William H. G.|date=2014-12-29|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=9783845711935|pages=123–82|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232639/https://books.google.com/books?id=__f6BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

By the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on three decks. [[Sailing ship tactics|Naval tactics]] evolved to bring each ship's firepower to bear in a [[line of battle]]—coordinated movements of a fleet of warships to engage a line of ships in the enemy fleet.<ref name=":1" /> Carracks with a single cannon deck evolved into [[galleon]]s with as many as two full cannon decks,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hIKUhgBcSacC&pg=PA216|title=Archaeology and the Social History of Ships|last=Gould|first=Richard A.|date=2011-04-29|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139498166|pages=216|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232640/https://books.google.com/books?id=hIKUhgBcSacC&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> which evolved into the man-of-war, and further into the [[ship of the line]]—<nowiki/>designed for engaging the enemy in a line of battle. One side of a ship was expected to shoot [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]]s against an enemy ship at close range.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1hALgEACAAJ|title=Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793–1815|last=Lavery|first=Brian|date=2012|publisher=Conway|isbn=9781844861750|language=en}}</ref> In the 18th century, the small and fast [[frigate]] and [[sloop-of-war]]—<nowiki/>too small to stand in the line of battle—evolved to [[convoy]] trade, scout for enemy ships and [[blockade]] enemy coasts.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4RZhDwAAQBAJ|title=French Warships in the Age of Sail 1626–1786|last1=Winfield|first1=Rif|last2=Roberts|first2=Stephen S.|date=2017|publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited|isbn=9781473893535|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232640/https://books.google.com/books?id=4RZhDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Clippers ====
{{Main|Clipper}}
The term "clipper" started to be used in the first quarter of the 19th century. It was applied to sailing vessels designed primarily for speed. Only a small proportion of sailing vessels could properly have the term applied to them.<ref name="Gardiner and Greenhill 1993"/>{{rp|33}}

Early examples were the schooners and brigantines, called [[Baltimore Clipper|Baltimore clippers]], used for blockade running or as privateers in the [[War of 1812]] and afterwards for smuggling [[opium]] or [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|illegally transporting slaves]]. Larger clippers, usually ship or barque rigged and with a different hull design, were built for the [[California Gold Rush|California trade]] (from east coast USA ports to San Francisco) after gold was discovered in 1848 {{endash}} the associated shipbuilding boom lasted until 1854.<ref name="MacGregor 1993">{{cite book |last1=MacGregor |first1=David R |title=British and American Clippers: A Comparison of their Design, Construction and Performance |date=1993 |publisher=Conway Maritime Press Limited |location=London |isbn=0-85177-588-8}}</ref>{{rp|pages=7, 9, 13.14}}

Clippers were built for trade between the United Kingdom and China after the [[East India Company]] lost its monopoly in 1834. The primary cargo was tea, and sailing ships, particularly tea clippers, dominated this long-distance route until the development of [[SS Agamemnon (1865)|fuel efficient steamships]] coincided with the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869.<ref name="MacGregor 1983">{{cite book |last=MacGregor |first=David R. |date= 1983|title=The Tea Clippers, Their History and Development 1833-1875 |url= |location= |publisher=Conway Maritime Press Limited |isbn=0-85177-256-0}}</ref>{{rp|pages=9–10, 209}}

Other clippers worked on the Australian immigrant routes or, in smaller quantities, in any role where a fast passage secured higher rates of freight{{efn|Freight: the price paid for carrying a cargo}} or passenger fares. Whilst many clippers were [[Full-rigged ship|ship]] rigged, the definition is not limited to any rig.{{r|MacGregor 1993|pp=10-11}}

Clippers were generally built for a specific trade: those in the California trade had to withstand the seas of Cape Horn, whilst Tea Clippers were designed for the lighter and contrary winds of the China Sea. All had fine lines,{{efn|The fineness of a ship's hull is best described by considering a rectangular cuboid with the same length, breadth (beam) and depth as the hull of the ship. The more material that you have to carve away to get the shape of the ship's hull, the finer the lines.}} with a well streamlined hull and carried a large sail area. To get the best of this, a skilled and determined master was needed in command.{{r|MacGregor 1993|pp=16-19}}

==== Copper sheathing ====
{{Main|Copper sheathing}}
During the Age of Sail, ships' hulls were under frequent attack by [[shipworm]] (which affected the structural strength of timbers), and [[barnacle]]s and various marine [[weed]]s (which affected ship speed).<ref>McKee, A. in Bass (ed.) 1972, p.235</ref> Since before the common era, a variety of coatings had been applied to hulls to counter this effect, including pitch, wax, tar, oil, sulfur and arsenic.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last1=Telegdi|first1=J.|last2=Trif|first2=L.|last3=Romanski|first3=L.|title=Smart composite coatings and membranes : transport, structural, environmental and energy applications|publisher=Elsevier|year=2016|isbn=9781782422952|editor-last=Montemor|editor-first=Maria Fatima|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=130–1|oclc=928714218}}</ref> In the mid 18th century [[copper sheathing]] was developed as a defense against such bottom fouling.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fuBEAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA276|title=On copper and other sheathing|last=Hay|date=May 15, 1863|journal=The Engineer|location=London|pages=276|language=en|access-date=June 29, 2019|archive-date=October 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232647/https://books.google.com/books?id=fuBEAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA276#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> After coping with problems of [[Galvanic corrosion|galvanic deterioration]] of metal hull fasteners, [[Galvanic anode|sacrificial anodes]] were developed, which were designed to corrode, instead of the hull fasteners.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g273FGUNIFQC|title=Ships' Fastenings: From Sewn Boat to Steamship|last=Mccarthy|first=Michael|date=2005|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=9781603446211|pages=131|language=en|access-date=2019-06-29|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232650/https://books.google.com/books?id=g273FGUNIFQC|url-status=live}}</ref> The practice became widespread on naval vessels, starting in the late 18th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rogerknight.org/pdf/The%20Introduction%20of%20Copper%20Sheathing.pdf|title=The introduction of copper sheathing into the Royal Navy, 1779–1786|last1=Knight|first1=R. J. B.|website=rogerknight.org|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=8 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208172248/http://www.rogerknight.org/pdf/The%20Introduction%20of%20Copper%20Sheathing.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and on merchant vessels, starting in the early 19th century, until the advent of iron and steel hulls.<ref name=":4" />

=== 1850 to 1900 ===
{{Main|Iron-hulled sailing ship}}
[[Iron-hulled sailing ship]]s, often referred to as "[[windjammer]]s" or "[[tall ship]]s",<ref name="Schäuffelen 2005">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgMRudqoLGQC&pg=PA46|title=Chapman Great Sailing Ships of the World|last=Schäuffelen|first=Otmar|date=2005|publisher=Hearst Books|isbn=9781588163844|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232647/https://books.google.com/books?id=QgMRudqoLGQC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> represented the final evolution of sailing ships at the end of the Age of Sail. They were built to carry bulk cargo for long distances in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They were the largest of merchant sailing ships, with three to five masts and square sails, as well as other [[sail plan]]s. They carried [[lumber]], [[guano]], [[grain]] or [[ore]] between continents. Later examples had steel hulls. Iron-hulled sailing ships were mainly built from the 1870s to 1900, when [[steamship]]s began to outpace them economically, due to their ability to keep a schedule regardless of the wind. Steel hulls also replaced iron hulls at around the same time. Even into the twentieth century, sailing ships could hold their own on transoceanic voyages such as Australia to Europe, since they did not require [[Coal bunker|bunkerage]] for coal nor fresh water for steam, and they were faster than the early steamers, which usually could barely make {{Convert|8|kn|km/h|abbr=}}.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OOUjAQAAMAAJ|title=Men and Ships Around Cape Horn, 1616–1939|last=Randier|first=Jean|date=1968|publisher=Barker|isbn=9780213764760|pages=338|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232648/https://books.google.com/books?id=OOUjAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

The four-masted, iron-hulled ship, introduced in 1875 with the full-rigged {{ship||County of Peebles|ship|2}}, represented an especially efficient configuration that prolonged the competitiveness of sail against steam in the later part of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gone – a chronicle of the seafarers & fabulous clipper ships of R & J Craig of Glasgow : Craig's "Counties" |last=Cumming |first=Bill |date=2009 |publisher=Brown, Son & Ferguson |isbn=9781849270137 |location=Glasgow |oclc=491200437}}</ref> The largest example of such ships was the five-masted, [[full-rigged ship]] {{ship||Preussen|ship|2}}, which had a load capacity of 7,800 tonnes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rE3OVHLYjnEC&pg=PA8-IA4|title=Container Ships and Oil Tankers|last1=Sutherland|first1=Jonathan|last2=Canwell|first2=Diane|date=2007-07-07|publisher=Gareth Stevens|isbn=9780836883770|language=en|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2023-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027232752/https://books.google.com/books?id=rE3OVHLYjnEC&pg=PA8-IA4#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Ships transitioned from all sail to all steam-power from the mid 19th century into the 20th.<ref name="Schäuffelen 2005"/> Five-masted ''Preussen'' used [[Steam engine|steam power]] for driving the [[winch]]es, [[Hoist (device)|hoists]] and [[pump]]s, and could be manned by a crew of 48, compared with four-masted ''[[Kruzenshtern (ship)|Kruzenshtern]]'', which has a crew of 257.<ref name=":0A">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2009/04/sailing-ships-large-crew-automated-control.html|title=Sailing at the touch of a button|last=Staff|date=April 13, 2009|website=Low-Tech Magazine|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=2017-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204031410/http://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2009/04/sailing-ships-large-crew-automated-control.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Coastal top-sail schooners with a crew as small as two managing the sail handling became an efficient way to carry bulk cargo, since only the fore-sails required tending while [[Tacking (sailing)|tacking]] and steam-driven machinery was often available for raising the sails and the [[anchor]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/sailingshipsand00chatgoog|title=Sailing Ships and Their Story :the Story of Their Development from the Earliest Times to the Present Day|last=Chatterton|first=Edward Keble|date=1915|publisher=Lippincott|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sailingshipsand00chatgoog/page/n374 298]|language=en}}</ref>

=== 1950 to 2000 ===

In the 20th century, the [[DynaRig]] allowed central, automated control of all sails in a manner that obviates the need for sending crew aloft. This was developed in the 1960s in Germany as a low-carbon footprint propulsion alternative for commercial ships. The rig automatically sets and reefs sails; its mast rotates to align the sails with the wind. The sailing yachts ''[[The Maltese Falcon (yacht)|Maltese Falcon]]'' and ''[[Black Pearl (yacht)|Black Pearl]]'' employ the rig.<ref name=":0A" /><ref name=":4B">{{cite web |url=https://www.boatinternational.com/yachts/the-superyacht-directory/black-pearl--39361 |title=Black Pearl |publisher=Boat International Media Ltd |website=www.boatinternational.com |access-date=11 October 2018 |archive-date=14 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114230939/https://www.boatinternational.com/yachts/the-superyacht-directory/black-pearl--39361 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 21st century and contemporary experimental sail ===

In the 21st century, due to concern about climate change and the possibility of cost savings, companies explored using wind-power to reduce heavy fuel needs on large containerized [[Cargo ship|cargo ships]]. By 2023, around 30 ships were using sails or attached kites, with the number expected to grow.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Buckley |first=Cara |date=2023-10-03 |title=In Shipping, a Push to Slash Emissions by Harnessing the Wind |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/03/climate/wind-powered-ships-climate.html |access-date=2023-10-09 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2023-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009015119/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/03/climate/wind-powered-ships-climate.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Neuman |first=Scott |date=5 October 2023 |title=New technology uses good old-fashioned wind to power giant cargo vessels |work=[[National Public Radio]] |department=Morning Edition |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/10/05/1200788439/wind-power-cargo-ships-carbon-emissions |access-date=9 October 2023 |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009054501/https://www.npr.org/2023/10/05/1200788439/wind-power-cargo-ships-carbon-emissions |url-status=live }}</ref> The following year, ''The Economist'' wrote that the technology was at an inflection point as it moved from trials and testing towards adoption by the industry.<ref>{{Cite news |title=A new age of sail begins |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2024/05/21/a-new-age-of-sail-begins |access-date=2024-05-21 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>