Editing Roman triumph (section)

==Background and ceremonies==

===The ''vir triumphalis''===
In Republican Rome, truly exceptional military achievement merited the highest possible honours, which connected the ''vir triumphalis'' ("man of triumph", later known as a ''triumphator'') to Rome's mythical and semi-mythical past. In effect, the general was close to being "king for a day", and possibly close to divinity. He wore the regalia traditionally associated both with the ancient [[Roman monarchy]] and with the statue of ''Jupiter Capitolinus'': the purple and gold "toga picta", laurel crown, red boots and, again possibly, the red-painted face of Rome's supreme deity. He was drawn in procession through the city in a four-horse chariot, under the gaze of his peers and an applauding crowd, to the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus|temple of Capitoline Jupiter]]. His spoils and captives led the way; his armies followed behind. Once at the Capitoline temple, he sacrificed two white oxen to [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], and laid tokens of victory at the feet of Jupiter's statue, thus dedicating the triumph to the Roman Senate, people, and gods.<ref>A summary of disparate viewpoints regarding the Triumph is in Versnel, 56–93: limited preview via [https://books.google.com/books?id=DswUAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Within+the+range+of+opinions%22+inauthor%3AVersnel&pg=PA57 Books.Google.com]</ref>

Triumphs were tied to no particular day, season, or religious festival of the [[Roman calendar]]. Most seem to have been celebrated at the earliest practicable opportunity, probably on days that were deemed auspicious for the occasion. Tradition required that, for the duration of a triumph, every temple was open. The ceremony was thus, in some sense, shared by the whole community of Roman gods,<ref>Versnel, p. 386.</ref> but overlaps were inevitable with specific festivals and anniversaries. Some may have been coincidental; others were designed. For example, March 1, the festival and [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#dies natalis|''dies natalis'']] of the war god [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], was the traditional anniversary of the first triumph by [[Publius Valerius Publicola|Publicola]] (504 BCE), of six other Republican triumphs, and of the very first Roman triumph by [[Romulus]].<ref>Beard, p. 77.</ref> [[Pompey]] postponed his third and most magnificent triumph for several months to make it coincide with his own ''dies natalis'' (birthday).<ref>Beard, p. 7.</ref><ref>Denis Feeney, ''Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History'', University of California Press (2008) p. 148.</ref>

Religious dimensions aside, the focus of the triumph was the general himself. The ceremony promoted him – however temporarily – above every mortal Roman. This was an opportunity granted to very few. From the time of [[Scipio Africanus]], the triumphal general was linked (at least for historians during the Principate) to [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] and the demi-god [[Hercules]], who had laboured selflessly for the benefit of all mankind.<ref>Beard, 72–75. See also Diodorus, 4.5 at Thayer: [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4A*.html#5.2 Uchicago.edu]</ref><ref>Beard ''et al'', 85–87: see also Polybius, 10.2.20, who suggests that Scipio's assumption of divine connections (and the personal favour of divine guidance) was unprecedented and seemed suspiciously "Greek" to his more conservative peers.</ref><ref>See also Galinsky, 106, 126–149, for Heraklean/Herculean associations of Alexander, Scipio, and later triumphing Roman generals.</ref> His sumptuous triumphal chariot was bedecked with [[fascinus|charms]] against the possible envy (''[[invidia]]'') and malice of onlookers.<ref>Versnel, p. 380.</ref><ref>Various Roman sources describe the different charms employed against envy during triumphs, not necessarily at the same event; they include an assemblage of miniature bells  (''[[Tintinnabulum (Ancient Rome)|tintinnabulum]]'') and a whip on the chariot's dashboard. In Pliny, a sacred [[Fascinus|phallos]] loaned by the [[Vestal Virgins]] is slung between the chariot wheels; see Beard, pp. 83–85.</ref> In some accounts, a companion or [[servus publicus|public slave]] would remind him from time to time of his own mortality (a ''[[memento mori]]'').<ref>The very few accounts are from the Imperial era of a public slave (or other figure) who stands behind or near the triumphator to remind him that he "is but mortal" or prompts him to "look behind", and are open to a variety of interpretations. Nevertheless, they imply a tradition that the triumphing general was publicly reminded of his mortal nature, whatever his kingly appearance, temporary godlike status, or divine associations. See Beard, pp. 85–92.</ref>

===The procession===
Rome's earliest "triumphs" were probably simple victory parades, celebrating the return of a victorious general and his army to the city, along with the fruits of his victory, and ending with some form of dedication to the gods. This is probably so for the earliest legendary and later semi-legendary triumphs of Rome's regal era, when the king functioned as Rome's highest magistrate and war-leader. As Rome's population, power, influence, and territory increased, so did the scale, length, variety, and extravagance of its triumphal processions.

The procession (''pompa'') mustered in the open space of the [[Campus Martius]] (Field of Mars) probably well before first light. From there, all unforeseen delays and accidents aside, it would have managed a slow walking pace at best, punctuated by various planned stops en route to its final destination of the Capitoline temple, a distance of just under 4&nbsp;km (2.48&nbsp;mi). Triumphal processions were notoriously long and slow;<ref>Emperor [[Vespasian]] regretted his triumph because its vast length and slow movement bored him; see Suetonius, ''Vespasian'', 12.</ref> the longest could last for two or three days, and possibly more, and some may have been of greater length than the route itself.<ref>The "2,700 wagonloads of captured weapons alone, never mind the soldiers and captives and booty" on one day of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus|Aemilius Paulus]]'s triumphal "extravaganza" of 167 BCE is wild exaggeration. Some modern scholarship suggests a procession 7 km long as plausible. See Beard, p. 102.</ref>

Some ancient and modern sources suggest a fairly standard processional order. First came the captive leaders, allies, and soldiers (and sometimes their families) usually walking in chains; some were destined for execution or further display. Their captured weapons, armour, gold, silver, statuary, and curious or exotic treasures were carted behind them, along with paintings, tableaux, and models depicting significant places and episodes of the war. Next in line, all on foot, came Rome's senators and magistrates, followed by the general's [[lictor]]s in their red war-robes, their [[fasces]] wreathed in laurel, then the general in his four-horse chariot. A companion, or a public slave, might share the chariot with him or, in some cases, his youngest children. His officers and elder sons rode horseback nearby. His unarmed soldiers followed in togas and laurel crowns, chanting "io triumphe!" and singing ribald songs at their general's expense. Somewhere in the procession, two flawless white oxen were led for the sacrifice to Jupiter, garland-decked and with gilded horns. All this was done to the accompaniment of music, clouds of incense, and the strewing of flowers.<ref>Summary based on Versnel, pp. 95–96.</ref>

Almost nothing is known of the procession's infrastructure and management. Its doubtless enormous cost was defrayed in part by the state but mostly by the general's loot, which most ancient sources dwell on in great detail and unlikely superlatives. Once disposed, this portable wealth injected huge sums into the Roman economy; the amount brought in by [[Octavian]]'s triumph over Egypt triggered a fall in interest rates and a sharp rise in land prices.<ref>Beard, pp. 159–161, citing Suetonius, ''Augustus'', 41.1.</ref> No ancient source addresses the logistics of the procession: where the soldiers and captives, in a procession of several days, could have slept and eaten, or where these several thousands plus the spectators could have been stationed for the final ceremony at the Capitoline temple.<ref>Beard, pp. 93–95, 258. For their joint triumph of 71 CE, [[Titus]] and [[Vespasian]] treated their soldiers to a very early, and possibly traditional "triumphal breakfast".</ref>

===The route===
The following schematic is for the route taken by "some, or many" triumphs, and is based on standard modern reconstructions.<ref>See map, in Beard, p. 334, and discussion on pp. 92–105.</ref> Any original or traditional route would have been diverted to some extent by the city's many redevelopments and re-building, or sometimes by choice. The starting place (the Campus Martius) lay outside the city's sacred boundary (''[[pomerium]]''), bordering the eastern bank of the [[Tiber]]. The procession entered the city through a ''Porta Triumphalis'' (Triumphal Gate),<ref>The location and nature of the ''Porta Triumphalis'' are among the most uncertain and disputed aspects of the triumphal route; some sources imply a gate exclusively dedicated to official processions, others a free-standing arch, or the ''[[Porta Carmentalis]]'' by another name, or any convenient gate in the vicinity. See discussion in Beard, pp. 97–101.</ref> and crossed the ''[[pomerium]]'', where the general surrendered his command to the [[Roman Senate|senate]] and [[Magistratus|magistrates]]. It continued through the site of the [[Circus Flaminius]], skirting the southern base of the Capitoline Hill and the ''[[Velabrum]]'', along a ''[[Via Trionfale|Via Triumphalis]]'' (Triumphal Way)<ref>Sometimes thought to be the same route as the modern ''[[Via dei Fori Imperiali]]''</ref> towards the ''[[Circus Maximus]]'', perhaps dropping off any prisoners destined for execution at the [[Tullianum]].<ref>This is where [[Jugurtha]] was starved to death and [[Vercingetorix]] was strangled.</ref> It entered the ''[[Via Sacra]]'' then the [[Roman Forum|Forum]]. Finally, it ascended the [[Capitoline Hill]] to the [[Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus]]. Once the sacrifice and dedications were completed, the procession and spectators dispersed to banquets, games, and other entertainments sponsored by the triumphing general.

===Banquets, games, and entertainments===
In most triumphs, the general funded any post-procession banquets from his share of the loot. There were feasts for the people and separate, much richer feasts for the elite; some went on for most of the night. [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]] offers a contrast to the lavish triumphal banquets of his time by giving Romulus's triumph the most primitive possible "banquet" – ordinary Romans setting up food-tables as a "welcome home", and the returning troops taking swigs and bites as they marched by. He recreates the first Republican triumphal banquet along the same lines.<ref>Beard, pp. 258–259; cf Livy's "soldiers feasting as they went" at the triumph of [[Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus|Cincinnatus]] (458 BCE).</ref> [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] claims that his aunt earned 20,000 [[Sestertius|sesterces]] by supplying 5,000 [[Thrush (bird)|thrushes]] for [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius|Caecilius Metellus]]'s triumph of 71 BCE.<ref>Beard, p. 49.</ref>

Some triumphs included [[ludi]] as fulfillment of the general's vow to a god or goddess, made before battle or during its heat, in return for their help in securing victory.<ref>Beard, pp. 263–264.</ref> In the Republic, they were paid for by the triumphing general. [[Marcus Fulvius Nobilior (consul 189 BC)|Marcus Fulvius Nobilior]] vowed ''ludi'' in return for victory over the [[Aetolian League]] and paid for ten days of games at his triumph.

===Commemoration===
[[Image:04 2022 Roma (Arco di Trionfo di Tito- Bassorilievi) FO228683 bis Photo by Paolo Villa.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from the [[Arch of Titus]] showing Titus as ''triumphator'']]
[[Image:Judiska kriget på Titusbågen - bearbetad.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from the [[Arch of Titus]] showing his triumph held in 71 for his [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Sack of Jerusalem]].]]
Most Romans would never have seen a triumph, but its symbolism permeated Roman imagination and material culture. Triumphal generals minted and circulated characteristically detailed, high value coins to propagate their triumphal fame and generosity empire-wide. Pompey's issues for his three triumphs are typical. One is an [[aureus]] (a gold coin) that has a laurel-wreathed border enclosing a head which personifies Africa; beside it, Pompey's title "Magnus" ("The Great"), with [[lituus|wand]] and [[libation#Ancient Rome|jug]] as symbols of his [[augur]]y. The reverse identifies him as [[proconsul]] in a triumphal chariot attended by [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]]. A triumphal [[denarius]] (a silver coin) shows his three trophies of captured arms, with his augur's wand and jug. Another shows a globe surrounded by triumphal wreaths, symbolising his "world conquest", and an ear of grain to show that his victory protected Rome's grain supply.<ref>Beard pp. 19–21,</ref> A notable coin, minted by Lucius Manlius Torquatus, a supporter of [[Sulla]], references Sulla's victory over [[Mithridates VI Eupator|Mithridates VI of Pontus]]. This coin depicts a [[quadriga]] with Sulla's legend and the general partially visible in his chariot. This established a precedent for the Imperial period, where coins often depicted triumphal arches erected by emperors to commemorate their victories. [[Germanicus]]' achievements in Germany in 15-16 CE are depicted on coins showing [[Tiberius]] in a quadriga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eiland |first=Murray |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.30861/9781407360713 |title=Picturing Roman Belief Systems: The iconography of coins in the Republic and Empire |date=2023-04-30 |publisher=British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd |isbn=978-1-4073-6071-3 |pages=70–71|doi=10.30861/9781407360713 }}</ref>

In Republican tradition, a general was expected to wear his triumphal regalia only for the day of his triumph; thereafter, they were presumably displayed in the atrium of his family home. As one of the nobility, he was entitled to a particular kind of funeral in which a string of actors walked behind his bier wearing the [[Roman funerals and burial#Imagines|masks]] of his ancestors; another actor represented the general himself and his highest achievement in life by wearing his funeral mask, triumphal laurels, and ''toga picta''.<ref>Flower, Harriet I., ''Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture'', Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 33.</ref> Anything more was deeply suspect; Pompey was granted the privilege of wearing his triumphal wreath at the Circus, but he met with a hostile reception.<ref>Taylor, Lily Ross, ''The Divinity of the Roman Emperor'', American Philological Association, 1931 (reprinted by Arno Press, 1975), p. 57, citing Cicero, To Atticus, 1.18.6, and Velleius Paterculus, 2.40.4. Faced with this reaction, Pompey never tried it again.</ref> Julius Caesar's penchant for wearing his triumphal regalia "wherever and whenever" was taken as one among many signs of monarchical intentions which, for some, justified his murder. In the Imperial era, emperors wore such regalia to signify their elevated rank and office and to identify themselves with the Roman gods and Imperial order – a central feature of [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Imperial cult]].

The building and dedication of monumental public works offered local, permanent opportunities for triumphal commemoration. In 55 BCE, [[Pompey]] inaugurated Rome's first stone-built Theatre as a gift to the people of Rome, funded by his spoils. Its gallery and colonnades doubled as an exhibition space and likely contained statues, paintings, and other trophies carried at his various triumphs.<ref>Beard, pp. 23–25.</ref> It contained a new temple to Pompey's patron goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus Victrix]] ("Victorious Venus"); the year before, he had issued a coin which showed her crowned with triumphal laurels.<ref>Beard, pp. 22–23.</ref> [[Julius Caesar]] claimed Venus as both patron and divine ancestress; he funded a new temple to her and dedicated it during his quadruple triumph of 46 BCE. He thus wove his patron goddess and putative ancestress into his triumphal anniversary.

[[Augustus]], Caesar's heir and Rome's first emperor, built a vast triumphal monument on the Greek coast at [[Actium]], overlooking the scene of his decisive sea-battle against Antony and Egypt; the [[Naval ram|bronze beaks]] of captured Egyptian warships projected from its seaward wall. Imperial iconography increasingly identified Emperors with the gods, starting with the Augustan reinvention of Rome as a virtual monarchy (the [[principate]]). Sculpted panels on the [[arch of Titus]] (built by [[Domitian]]) celebrate [[Titus]]' and [[Vespasian]]'s joint triumph over the Jews after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|siege of Jerusalem]], with a triumphal procession of captives and treasures seized from the temple of Jerusalem – some of which funded the building of the [[Colosseum]]. Another panel shows the funeral and [[apotheosis]] of the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)#Divus, deus and the numen|deified]] Titus. Prior to this, the senate voted Titus [[Arch of Titus (Circus Maximus)|a triple-arch at the Circus Maximus]] to celebrate or commemorate the same victory or triumph.<ref>Fergus Millar, "Last Year in Jerusalem: Monuments of the Jewish War in Rome", in ''Flavius Josephus and Flavian Rome'', J. C. Edmondson, Steve Mason, J. B. Rives (eds.), pp. 101–124.</ref>