Editing Roman conquest of Britain (section)

==Background==
{{Further|Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain}}
[[File:South.Britain.Late.Iron.Age.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Southern British tribes before the Roman invasion]]
In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|expeditions in 55 and 54&nbsp;BC]], and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman [[Iron Age]], especially in the south.

Between 55&nbsp;BC and the 40s&nbsp;AD, the ''status quo'' of tribute, hostages, and [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|client states]] without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. [[Augustus]] prepared invasions in 34&nbsp;BC, 27&nbsp;BC and 25&nbsp;BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]], ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/49*.html#38 49.38] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/49%2A.html#38 |date=2 November 2022 }}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#22 53.22], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#25 53.25]</ref> According to Augustus's ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'', two British kings, [[Dubnovellaunus]] and [[Tincomarus]], fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign,<ref>[[Augustus]], ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/6*.html#32 32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/6%2A.html#32 |date=2 November 2022 }}. The name of the second king is defaced, but Tincomarus is the most likely reconstruction.</ref> and [[Strabo]]'s ''[[Geographica]]'', written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.<ref>[[Strabo]], ''Geography'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E*.html 4.5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E%2A.html |date=2 November 2022 }}</ref>

By the 40s&nbsp;AD, the political situation within Britain was in ferment. The [[Catuvellauni]] had displaced the [[Trinovantes]] as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of [[Camulodunum]] ([[Colchester]]). The [[Atrebates]] tribe whose capital was at Calleva Atrebatum ([[Silchester]]) had friendly trade and diplomatic links with Rome and [[Verica]] was recognised by Rome as their king, but [[Caratacus]]' [[Catuvellauni]] conquered the entire kingdom some time after AD 40 and Verica was expelled from Britain.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]], ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 60:19] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120717074020/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 |date=17 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>John Creighton (2000), ''Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain'', Cambridge University Press</ref>

[[Caligula]] may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to [[Suetonius]]' ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'', he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the [[English Channel]] and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather [[seashell]]s, referring to them as "plunder from the ocean due to the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]] and the [[Palatine Hill|Palace]]".<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Caligula'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#44 44–46] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102249/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula%2A.html#44 |date=13 July 2021 }}; Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html#25 59.25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59%2A.html#25 |date=2 November 2022 }}</ref> Alternatively, he may have told them to gather "huts", since the word ''musculi'' was also soldier's [[slang]] for engineers' huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/10191974/Caligula-Mad-bad-and-maybe-a-little-misunderstood.html Caligula: Mad, bad, and maybe a little misunderstood] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730172231/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/10191974/Caligula-Mad-bad-and-maybe-a-little-misunderstood.html |date=30 July 2018 }}, ''Telegraph''</ref> In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at Bononia (modern [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]]), the ''Tour d'Ordre'', that provided a model for the one built soon after at [[Dubris]] (Dover).