Editing Ravenna (section)

==History==
{{For timeline}}
The origin of the name ''Ravenna'' is unclear. Some have speculated that "Ravenna" is related to "Rasenna" (or "Rasna"), the term that the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Names |first=All Things Baby |date=2019-05-31 |title=Ravenna Name Meaning, Origin, Popularity, and More |url=https://www.allthingsbabynames.com/ravenna-name-meaning/ |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=All Things Baby Names |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111202204/https://www.allthingsbabynames.com/ravenna-name-meaning/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.turismo.ravenna.it/contenuti/index.php?t=arte_storia&id=1&cat=&lang=2 Tourism in Ravenna – Official site – History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121183040/http://www.turismo.ravenna.it/contenuti/index.php?t=arte_storia&id=1&cat=&lang=2 |date=2011-11-21 }}. Turismo.ravenna.it (2010-06-20). Retrieved on 2011-06-20.</ref>

===Ancient era===
The origins of Ravenna are uncertain.<ref>Deborah M. Deliyannis, Ravenna in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2010), for this and much of the information that follows</ref> The oldest archaeological evidence found dates the [[Umbri]] presence in Ravenna at least to the 5th century BC, where it was undisturbed until the 3rd century BC, when first contact with Roman civilization began.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mascanzoni|first=Leardo|title=Ravenna: Una storia millenaria|publisher=Giunti Barbera Editore|year=1990|pages=3–50|language=it}}</ref> Its territory was settled also by the [[Senones]], especially the southern countryside of the city (that was not part of the lagoon), the ''Ager Decimanus''. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of small islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to [[Venice]] several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the [[Po River]] Delta, but later accepted it into the [[Roman Republic]] as a federated town in 89 [[Common Era|BC]].<ref name=":0" />

In 49 BC, it was where [[Julius Caesar]] gathered his forces before crossing the [[Rubicon]]. Later [[Augustus|Octavian]], after his battle against [[Mark Antony]] in 31 BC, founded the military harbor of [[Classe, ancient port of Ravenna|Classis]].<ref>From the Latin for "fleet".</ref> This harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the [[Roman Navy|Roman Imperial Fleet]]. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important [[seaport]] on the [[Adriatic]] until the early [[Middle Ages]]. During the Germanic campaigns, [[Thusnelda]], widow of [[Arminius]], and [[Marbod]], King of the [[Marcomanni]], were confined at Ravenna.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Ravenna(Peutinger Map).png|thumb|left|The city of Ravenna in the 4th century as shown on the [[Peutinger Map]]]]
Ravenna greatly prospered under Roman rule. Emperor [[Trajan]] built a {{convert|70|km|2|abbr=on}} long [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueduct]] at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the [[Marcomannic Wars]], [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.<ref>Dio 72.11.4-5; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius''</ref> In AD 401, [[Emperor Honorius]] transferred the capital of the [[Western Roman Empire]] from [[Mediolanum]] (current Milan) to Ravenna; it subsequently served as the capital of the empire for most of the 5th century and the last de facto western emperor [[Romulus Augustulus]] was deposed there in AD 476. At that time it was home to 50,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/1166147 |title=The Fall and Decline of the Roman Urban Mind |website=Academia |last1=Fischer |first1=Svante |last2=Victor |first2=Helena |access-date=2017-12-28 |archive-date=2022-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601135045/https://www.academia.edu/1166147 |url-status=live }}</ref> The transfer was made partly for defensive purposes: Ravenna was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and was perceived to be easily defensible (although in fact the city fell to opposing forces numerous times in its history); it is also likely that the move to Ravenna was due to the city's port and good sea-borne connections to the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. In 409, King [[Alaric I]] of the [[Kingdom of the Visigoths|Visigoths]] simply bypassed Ravenna, and went on to [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack]] [[Rome]] in 410 and to take [[Galla Placidia]], daughter of Emperor [[Theodosius I]], hostage.

After many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor [[Valentinian III]], due to the support of her nephew [[Theodosius II]]. Ravenna enjoyed a period of peace, during which time the Christian religion was favoured by the imperial court, and the city gained some of its most famous monuments, including the Orthodox Baptistry, the misnamed [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] (she was not actually buried there), and [[San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna|San Giovanni Evangelista]].

=== Ostrogothic Kingdom ===
{{see also|Ostrogothic Ravenna}}

The late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, and [[Romulus Augustulus]] was deposed in 476 by the general [[Odoacer]]. Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] sent the [[Ostrogoth]] King [[Theodoric the Great]] to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the [[Battle of Verona (489)|Battle of Verona]], [[Odoacer]] retreated to Ravenna, where he withstood a siege of three years by Theodoric, until the taking of [[Rimini]] deprived Ravenna of supplies. Theodoric took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] of Italy. Theodoric, following his imperial predecessors, also built many splendid buildings in and around Ravenna, including his palace church [[Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]], an Arian cathedral (now Santo Spirito) and Baptistery, and his own [[Mausoleum of Theodoric|Mausoleum]] just outside the walls.

[[File:Mausoleum of Theoderic.JPG|left|thumb|The [[Mausoleum of Theodoric]]]]

Both Odoacer and Theodoric and their followers were [[Arianism|Arian]] Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, who were largely Catholic Orthodox. Ravenna's Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the [[Archbishop's Chapel, Ravenna|Cappella Arcivescovile]]. Theodoric allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law and the Roman judicial system. The Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theodoric ordered the town to rebuild them at its own expense.

Theodoric died in 526 and was succeeded by his young grandson [[Athalaric]] under the authority of his daughter [[Amalasunta]], but by 535 both were dead and Theodoric's line was represented only by Amalasuntha's daughter [[Matasuntha]]. Various Ostrogothic military leaders took the Kingdom of Italy, but none were as successful as Theodoric had been. Meanwhile, the [[Orthodoxy|orthodox Christian]] [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine]] Emperor [[Justinian I]] opposed both Ostrogoth rule and the [[Arianism|Arian]] variety of Christianity. In 535 his general [[Belisarius]] [[Gothic War (535–554)|invaded Italy]] and in 540 conquered Ravenna. After the conquest of Italy was completed in 554, Ravenna became the seat of Byzantine government in Italy.

From 540 to 600, Ravenna's bishops embarked upon a notable building program of churches in Ravenna and in and around the port city of Classe. Surviving monuments include the [[Basilica of San Vitale]] and the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe]], as well as the partially surviving San Michele in Africisco.

===Exarchate of Ravenna===
[[File:Ravenna SantApollinare Classe3.jpg|thumb|[[Transfiguration of Jesus]]. Allegorical image with {{lang|la|[[Crux gemmata]]}} and lambs represent apostles, 533–549, [[apse]] of [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe]].]]
{{Main|Exarchate of Ravenna}}
Following the conquests of [[Belisarius]] for Eastern Roman Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the 6th century, Ravenna became the seat of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] governor of Italy, the [[Exarch]], and was known as the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]]. It was at this time that the [[Ravenna Cosmography]] was written.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Storia di Ravenna. Dalla preistoria all'anno Duemila |url=https://www.ilpontevecchio.com/vicus/89-storia-di-ravenna-dalla-preistoria-all-anno-duemila-9788865415955.html |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=ilpontevecchio |language=it-it |archive-date=2024-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105172424/https://www.ilpontevecchio.com/vicus/89-storia-di-ravenna-dalla-preistoria-all-anno-duemila-9788865415955.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Under Byzantine rule, the archbishop of the [[Archbishopric of Ravenna|Archdiocese of Ravenna]] was temporarily granted [[autocephaly]] from the Roman Church by the emperor, in 666, but this was soon revoked. Nevertheless, the archbishop of Ravenna held the second place in Italy after the pope, and played an important role in many theological controversies during this period.

===Middle Ages and Renaissance===
The [[Lombards]], under [[King Liutprand]], occupied Ravenna in 712, but were forced to return it to the Byzantines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Noble |first1=Thomas F. X. |title=The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. |url=https://archive.org/details/republicofstpete0000nobl |url-access=registration |date=1984 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press. |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |isbn=0-8122-1239-8}}</ref> Shortly after [[Aistulf]], the Lombard Duke of Friuli, was crowned King of the Lombards in 749, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion into the Byzantine’s Exarchate of Ravenna and the territory claimed by the Pope through the Patrimony of Saint Peter.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gwatkin |editor1-first=Henry Melvill |editor2-last=Whitney |editor2-first=James Pounder |title=The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume II |date=1913 |publisher=Macmillan Company |location=New York |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Zfh20mwPuoC&dq=Grimoald%2C+King+of+the+Lombards&q=Cambridge#v=snippet&q=Cambridge&f=false |access-date=29 March 2025}}</ref> 

In 751, the Byzantines surrendered the Exarchate of Ravenna to Aistulf. Aistulf then proceeded farther south and threated Rome claiming jurisdiction and demanding tribute and acknowledgement of his sovereignty. [[Pope Stephen II]] appealed to Aistulf but to no avail. In 753, Pope Stephen traveled to France to seek the help of [[Pepin the Short|Pepin, King of the Franks]]. Pepin responded favorably and ultimately conducted two campaigns to the Italian Peninsula to confront Aistulf with respect to territory that had been taken illegally.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gwatkin |editor1-first=Henry Melvill |editor2-last=Whitney |editor2-first=James Pounder |title=The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume II |date=1913 |publisher=Macmillan Company |location=New York |pages=215-217 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Zfh20mwPuoC&dq=Grimoald%2C+King+of+the+Lombards&q=Cambridge#v=snippet&q=Cambridge&f=false |access-date=29 March 2025}}</ref> 

Finally in 756, Aistulf conceded defeat, and agreed to pay reparations and surrender the territory taken five years earlier. At that time, Pepin fulfilled a promise that he had made two years prior in France and granted the pope the right to large territories that included the former Exarchate of Ravenna and the Roman duchy. This act has become known as the [[Donation of Pepin]] and provided the legal basis for the creation of the [[Papal States]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Donation of Pippin |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Donation-of-Pippin |website=Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |access-date=29 March 2025 |date=2025}}</ref>

After Pepin’s Donation and the establishment of the Papal States, Byzantine-era administrative structures collapsed during the 9th and 10th Centuries. Papal control was indirect, with local dukes and Lombard lords exercising de facto power. During the 11th and 12th Centuries, Ravenna became a contested city between the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy, with imperial appointees often clashing with papal legates. 

The beginning of the 13th Century was a period of great turmoil for the city of Ravenna. At that time, conflict between the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]] was intensifying. In 1198, Ravenna led a league of [[Romagna]] cities and Marches against the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto IV. Pope Innocent III was able to capitalized on the anti-imperial sentiment in Romagna to strengthen papal influence over Ravenna and other cities in the region.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Benigni |first1=U |title=Archdiocese of Ravenna |url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |website=Catholic Answers |publisher=Catholic Answers |access-date=31 March 2025 |date=2025 |archive-date=31 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250331210801/https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |url-status=live }}</ref> 

In 1218, Pietro [[Traversari]] came to power in Ravenna after defeating the Ubertini and Mainardi factions during the Guelph-Ghibelline conflict. The Traversari family ruled Ravenna for 22 years until 1240 when Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II besieged Ravenna and expelled the Traversari after the Traversari aligned themselves with the pro-papal Guelphs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Benigni |first1=U |title=Archdiocese of Ravenna |url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |website=Catholic Answers |publisher=Catholic Answers |access-date=31 March 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> 

Frederick’s Imperial Vicar ruled Ravenna for eight years until 1248 when Pope Innocent IV took Ravenna, and the Traversari returned to power. In 1275, the Traversari were driven from the city by Guido Novello da Polenta. The [[Da Polenta]] family established a hereditary lordship and governed with increasing independence as a papal vassal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Benigni |first1=U |title=Archdiocese of Ravenna |url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |website=Catholic Answers |publisher=Catholic Answers |access-date=31 March 2025 |date=2025 |archive-date=31 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250331210801/https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |url-status=live }}</ref>  

One of the most illustrious residents of Ravenna at this time was the exiled Florentine poet [[Dante]]. The last of the Da Polenta, [[Ostasio III da Polenta|Ostasio III]], was ousted by the [[Republic of Venice]] in February 1441, and the city was annexed to the Venetian territories by the [[Treaty of Cremona (1441)|Treaty of Cremona]].

Ravenna was then ruled by Venice until 1509, when the region was invaded in the course of the [[War of the League of Cambrai]]. At the [[Battle of Agnadello]] on 14 May, the French largely destroyed the Venetian army. Thereafter, the members of the League of Cambrai occupied Venice's mainland territories. After the Venetian withdrawal, Ravenna was again ruled by legates of the Pope as part of the Papal States. The Papal States retained control of Ravenna as the war continued, however in 1511, the Pope created a new alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire against France. In the conflict that ensued, France besieged Ravenna and then decisively defeated the League's relief forces at the [[Battle of Ravenna (1512)]]. After that victory, the French sacked Ravenna and occupied the city for four months before withdrawing. 

In 1527, notwithstanding their alliance with Pope Clement VII, the Venetians occupied Ravenna and the Romagna, which, however, they were compelled to restore in 1529.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Benigni |first1=U |title=Archdiocese of Ravenna |url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |website=Catholic Answers |publisher=Catholic Answers |access-date=31 March 2025 |date=2025 |archive-date=31 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250331210801/https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/archdiocese-of-ravenna |url-status=live }}</ref>  

The city was damaged in a tremendous flood in May 1636. Over the next 300 years, a network of [[canals]] diverted nearby rivers and drained nearby swamps, thus reducing the possibility of flooding and creating a large belt of agricultural land around the city.
[[File:Ravenna quattrino.jpg|thumb|An 18th-century [[quattrino]] from Ravenna depicting [[Apollinaris of Ravenna|Saint Apollinaris]]]]

===Modern age===

In the 17th and 18th Centuries, Ravenna was part of the Papal States up until 1796, when it was annexed into the French puppet state of the [[Cisalpine Republic]] / [[Italian Republic (Napoleonic)|Italian Republic]], and then made part of the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)]] in 1802. It was returned to the Papal States in 1814. Occupied by Piedmontese troops in 1859, Ravenna and the surrounding [[Romagna]] area became part of the new unified [[unification of Italy|Kingdom of Italy]] in 1861.

During [[World War II]], the town suffered severe damage. Fifty-two Allied bombing raids during the course of the Second World War had taken their toll, destroying some of Ravenna's noteworthy, unequalled early Christian art. Bombs intended for the railway station and its sidings had pulverised the [[San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna|Basilica of San Giovanni Evangelista]] in August 1944.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-past.com/feature/the-riches-of-ravenna/|title=The riches of Ravenna|date=10 December 2020|access-date=5 January 2023|archive-date=5 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105130752/https://the-past.com/feature/the-riches-of-ravenna/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 November 1944 troops of 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards, 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the British [[27th Lancers]] entered and liberated Ravenna. A total of 937 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the winter of 1944–45 are buried in Ravenna War Cemetery, including 438 Canadians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/second-world-war/canada-Italy-1943-to-1945|title=Canada - Italy 1943-1945 - the Second World War - History - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada|date=23 June 2021|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-date=7 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507055850/https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/second-world-war/canada-Italy-1943-to-1945|url-status=live}}</ref>