Editing Race and intelligence (section)

== History of the controversy ==
{{Main|History of the race and intelligence controversy}}
{{See also|Scientific racism}}
[[File:Frederick Douglass ambrotype (1856).jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Autodidacticism|Autodidact]] and abolitionist [[Frederick Douglass]] (1817–1895) served as a high-profile counterexample to myths of black intellectual inferiority.]]
Claims of differences in intelligence between races have been used to justify [[colonialism]], [[slavery]], [[racism]], [[social Darwinism]], and racial [[eugenic]]s. Claims of intellectual inferiority were used to justify British wars and colonial campaigns in Asia.<ref name="Mercer-2023">{{Cite web |last=Mercer |first=Jonathan |date=October 1, 2023 |title=Racism, Stereotypes, and War |url=https://direct.mit.edu/isec/article/48/2/7/118111/Racism-Stereotypes-and-War |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=direct.mit.edu |publisher=Journal of International Security}}</ref> Racial thinkers such as [[Arthur de Gobineau]] in France relied crucially on the assumption that black people were innately inferior to white people in developing their ideologies of [[white supremacy]]. Even [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers such as [[Thomas Jefferson]], a slave owner, believed black people to be innately inferior to white people in physique and intellect.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|p=23}} At the same time in the United States, prominent examples of African-American genius such the [[Autodidacticism|autodidact]] and abolitionist [[Frederick Douglass]], the pioneering sociologist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and the poet [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] stood as high-profile counterexamples to widespread stereotypes of black intellectual inferiority.<ref name="LawsonKirkland1999">Stewart, Roderick M. 1999. "The Claims of Frederick Douglass Philosophically Considered." Pp. 155–56 in ''Frederick Douglass: A Critical Reader'', edited by B. E. Lawson and F. M. Kirkland. Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-20578-4}}. "Moreover, though he does not make the point explicitly, again the very fact that Douglass is ably disputing this argument on this occasion celebrating a select few's intellect and will (or moral character)—this fact constitutes a living counterexample to the narrowness of the pro-slavery definition of humans."</ref><ref>Marable, Manning (2011), ''Living Black History: How Reimagining the African-American Past Can Remake America's Racial Future'', p. 96. {{ISBN|978-0-465-04395-8}}.</ref> In Britain, Japan's military victory over Russia in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] began to reverse negative stereotypes of "oriental" inferiority.<ref name="Mercer-2023" /><ref name="Tonooka-2017">{{Cite journal |last=Tonooka |first=Chika |date=2017 |title=Reverse Emulation and the Cult of Japanese Efficiency in Edwardian Britain |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26343378 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=95–119 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X15000539 |jstor=26343378 |s2cid=162698331 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref> [[File:Alfred Binet.jpg|244x244px|thumb|[[Alfred Binet]] (1857–1911), inventor of the first intelligence test|alt=|left]]

=== Early IQ testing ===
The first practical intelligence test, the [[Binet-Simon Intelligence Test]], was developed between 1905 and 1908 by [[Alfred Binet]] and [[Théodore Simon]] in France for school placement of children. Binet warned that results from his test should not be assumed to measure innate intelligence or used to label individuals permanently.{{sfn|Plotnik|Kouyoumdjian|2011}} Binet's test was translated into English and revised in 1916 by [[Lewis Terman]] (who introduced IQ scoring for the test results) and published under the name [[Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales]]. In 1916 Terman wrote that Mexican-Americans, African-Americans, and Native Americans have a mental "dullness [that] seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come."<ref>{{cite book |last=Terman |first=Lewis |title=The Measurement Of Intelligence |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company |year=1916 |page=91 |oclc=557712625}}</ref>

The US Army used a different set of tests developed by [[Robert Yerkes]] to evaluate draftees for World War I. Based on the Army's data, prominent psychologists and eugenicists such as [[Henry H. Goddard]], [[Harry H. Laughlin]], and Princeton professor [[Carl Brigham]] wrote that people from southern and eastern Europe were less intelligent than native-born Americans or immigrants from the Nordic countries, and that black Americans were less intelligent than white Americans.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|page=116}} The results were widely publicized by a lobby of anti-immigration activists, including the conservationist and theorist of [[scientific racism]] [[Madison Grant]], who considered the so-called [[Nordic race]] to be superior, but under threat because of immigration by "inferior breeds." In his influential work, ''A Study of American Intelligence,'' psychologist [[Carl Brigham]] used the results of the Army tests to argue for a stricter immigration policy, limiting immigration to countries considered to belong to the "Nordic race".{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|pages=116, 309}}

In the 1920s, some US states enacted [[eugenic]] laws, such as Virginia's [[Racial Integrity Act of 1924|1924 Racial Integrity Act]], which established the [[one-drop rule]] (of '[[racial purity]]') as law. Many scientists reacted negatively to eugenicist claims linking abilities and moral character to racial or genetic ancestry. They pointed to the contribution of environment (such as speaking English as a second language) to test results.{{sfn|Pickren|Rutherford|2010|p=163}} By the mid-1930s, many psychologists in the US had adopted the view that environmental and cultural factors played a dominant role in IQ test results. The psychologist Carl Brigham repudiated his own earlier arguments, explaining that he had come to realize that the tests were not a measure of innate intelligence.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|page=145}}

Discussions of the issue in the United States, especially in the writings of Madison Grant, influenced [[Germans|German]] [[Nazi]] claims that the "Nordics" were a "[[master race]]."{{sfn|Spiro|2009}} As American public sentiment shifted against the Germans, claims of racial differences in intelligence increasingly came to be regarded as problematic.<ref name="Ludy 2006">{{harvnb|Ludy|2006}}</ref> Anthropologists such as [[Franz Boas]], [[Ruth Benedict]], and [[Gene Weltfish]] did much to demonstrate that claims about racial hierarchies of intelligence were unscientific.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|pages=130–32}} Nonetheless, a powerful eugenics and segregation lobby funded largely by textile-magnate [[Wickliffe Draper]] continued to use intelligence studies as an argument for eugenics, segregation, and anti-immigration legislation.{{sfn|Tucker|2002}}

=== Pioneer Fund and ''The Bell Curve'' ===
As the desegregation of the American South gained traction in the 1950s, debate about black intelligence resurfaced. [[Audrey Shuey]], funded by Draper's [[Pioneer Fund]], published a new analysis of Yerkes' tests, concluding that black people really were of inferior intellect to white people. This study was used by segregationists to argue that it was to the advantage of black children to be educated separately from the superior white children.{{sfn|Jackson|2005}} In the 1960s, the debate was revived when [[William Shockley]] publicly defended the view that black children were innately unable to learn as well as white children.{{sfn|Shurkin|2006}} [[Arthur Jensen]] expressed similar opinions in his ''[[Harvard Educational Review]]'' article, "[[How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?]]," which questioned the value of [[compensatory education]] for African-American children.{{sfn|Jensen|1969|pages=1–123}} He suggested that poor educational performance in such cases reflected an underlying genetic cause rather than lack of stimulation at home or other environmental factors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Panofsky |first1=Aaron |title=Misbehaving Science. Controversy and the Development of Behavior Genetics |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-05831-3 |date=2014}}</ref>{{sfn|Alland|2002|pages=79–80}}

Another revival of public debate followed the appearance of ''[[The Bell Curve]]'' (1994), a book by [[Richard Herrnstein]] and [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]] that supported the general viewpoint of Jensen.{{sfn|Herrnstein|Murray|1994}} A statement in support of Herrnstein and Murray titled "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]," was published in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' with 52 signatures. ''The Bell Curve'' also led to critical responses in a statement titled "[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]" of the American Psychological Association and in several books, including ''[[The Bell Curve Debate]]'' (1995), ''[[Inequality by Design]]'' (1996) and a second edition of ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' (1996) by [[Stephen Jay Gould]].<ref name="Maltby, Day & Macaskill 2007"/><ref name="Mackintosh 1998">{{harvnb|Mackintosh|1998}}</ref>

Some of the authors proposing genetic explanations for group differences have received funding from the [[Pioneer Fund]], which was headed by [[J. Philippe Rushton]] until his death in 2012.{{sfn|Tucker|2002}}<ref name="Maltby, Day & Macaskill 2007">{{harvnb|Maltby|Day|Macaskill|2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Graves|2002a}}{{sfn|Graves|2002b}}<ref>{{harvnb|Grossman|Kaufman|2001}}</ref> Arthur Jensen, who jointly with Rushton published a 2005 review article arguing that the difference in average IQs between blacks and whites is partly due to genetics, received $1.1 million in grants from the Pioneer Fund.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Miller |year=1994 |title=The Pioneer Fund: Bankrolling the Professors of Hate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2962466 |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |issue=6 |pages=58–61 |doi=10.2307/2962466|jstor=2962466 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Blakemore |first1=Bill |last2=Jennings |first2=Peter |last3=Nissen |first3=Beth |date=November 22, 1994 |title=The Bell Curve and the Pioneer Fund |url=http://www.ferris.edu/isar/tanton/abcnews.htm |work=ABC World News Tonight |publisher=ABC News |access-date=May 1, 2020 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213542/http://www.ferris.edu/isar/tanton/abcnews.htm |url-status=live }} Vanderbilt Television News Archive : [http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=151406 ABC Evening News for Tuesday, Nov 22, 1994. Headline: American Agenda (Intelligence)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103223437/http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=151406 |date=January 3, 2016 }}</ref> According to [[Ashley Montagu]], "The University of California's Arthur Jensen, cited twenty-three times in ''The Bell Curve''{{'}}s bibliography, is the book's principal authority on the intellectual inferiority of blacks."<ref>{{cite book |last=Montagu |first=Ashley |title=Race and IQ |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2002 |edition=2 |isbn=978-0-19-510221-5}}</ref>

The [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] lists the Pioneer Fund as a [[hate group]], citing the fund's history, its funding of race and intelligence research, and its connections with [[racist]] individuals.{{sfn|Berlet|2003}} Other researchers have criticized the Pioneer Fund for promoting [[scientific racism]], [[eugenics]] and [[white supremacy]].{{sfn|Tucker|2002}}<ref>[http://www.pioneerfund.org/Board.html Pioneer Fund Board] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525150639/http://www.pioneerfund.org/Board.html |date=2011-05-25 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Falk|2008|p=18}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wroe|2008|p=81}}</ref>