Editing Public policy (section)

==Varying conceptions of public policy==

Public policy can be conceptualized in varying ways, according to the purposes of the speaker or author, and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with.

One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done, and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nawarat |first1=Nongyao |last2=Medley |first2=Michael |date=2018 |title=The Public Regime for Migrant Child Education in Thailand: Alternative Depictions of Policy |url= |journal=Asian Politics & Policy |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=412–415 |doi=10.1111/aspp.12408 |s2cid=158615070 |access-date=}}</ref>

[[David Easton]] in the USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of the policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values".<ref>{{cite book |last=Easton |first=David |date=1953 |title=The political system: An enquiry into the state of political science |url=https://archive.org/stream/politicalsystemi0000east |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |page=130}}</ref>

Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes".<ref>{{cite book |last=Cairney |first=Paul |date=2012 |title=Understanding public policy: Theories and issues |url=https://archive.org/stream/politicalsystemi0000east |location=Basingstoke, UK |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=5}}</ref>

An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by [[Richard Titmuss]]: "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends".<ref>{{cite book |last=Titmuss |first=Richard |date=1974 |title=Social Policy |url=https://archive.org/stream/socialpolicyintr0000titm |location=London |publisher=George Allen & Unwin |page=23 |isbn=0-394-49447-4}}</ref> Titmuss' perspective was particularly one of social contract ethics.

More recently, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7).<ref name="Lassance"/> Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a [[theory of change]] or program theory<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weiss|first=Carol H.|title=Evaluation|publisher=Pearson|year=1972|isbn=978-0-13-292193-0|location=London|pages=46–70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author1=Kathryn E. Newcomer |author2=Harry P. Hatry |author3=Joseph S. Wholey|title=Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation|publisher=Wiley|year=2015|isbn=978-1-118-89360-9|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|pages=62–88}}</ref> which he believes can be empirically tested.

One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy is that of [[Thomas R. Dye]], according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dye|first=Thomas R.|title=Understanding Public Policy|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1972|isbn=978-0-205-71685-2|location=Upper Saddle, New Jersey|page=2}}</ref> Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept.<ref name="Lassance"/> Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dye|first=Thomas R.|title=Understanding Public Policy|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1972|isbn=978-0-13-613147-2|location=Upper Saddle, New Jersey|page=13}}</ref>

In an institutionalist view, the foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both [[judicial]] interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship.<ref>{{cite web|title=Characteristics of Successful Public Policy|url=http://publicadmin.norwich.edu/characteristics-of-successful-public-policy/|website=Norwich University Public Administration|access-date=24 November 2014|archive-date=1 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201173430/http://publicadmin.norwich.edu/characteristics-of-successful-public-policy/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In his book ''Advanced Introduction to Public Policy'', B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for the purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Advanced Introduction to Public Policy|last=Peters|first=B. G.|publisher=Edward Elgar|year=2015|isbn=978-1-78195-576-5|pages=3}}</ref> In another definition, author B. Dente in his book ''Understanding Policy Decisions'' explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e. a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality is measured by the capacity to create [[public value]]."<ref>{{Citation|last=Dente|first=Bruno|chapter=Understanding Policy Decisions |date=2013-12-05|pages=1–27|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-02519-3|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02520-9_1|series=SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology}}</ref>

Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mainweb-v.musc.edu/vawprevention/policy/definition.shtml|title=Definitions of Public Policy and the Law|website=mainweb-v.musc.edu|access-date=2018-12-18|archive-date=2022-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120221459/https://mainweb-v.musc.edu/vawprevention/policy/definition.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions".<ref>{{cite journal|title=For the Greater Good: The Use of Public Policy Considerations in Confirming Chapter 11 Plans of Reorganization|first=W. Michael|last=Schuster|date=31 December 2008|ssrn = 1368469}}</ref> Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since the political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Transformative Law and Public Policy|last=Pellissery|first=Sony|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn= 9780367348298|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Analyzing Public Policy|last=John|first=Peter|publisher=Continuum|year=1998|isbn=978-0-203-13621-8|location=London|pages=10}}</ref> The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions actually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from the broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=J. E. |title=Public Policymaking: An Introduction |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |year=2003 |location=Boston |chapter=Chapter 1: The Study of Public Policy}}</ref>

In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at [[public policy schools]] of major [[universities]] throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students is the [[Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management]].

Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies.<ref name=":0" />