Editing Progressive education (section)

== History ==
{{No footnotes|date=May 2023|section}}
Progressive education can be traced back to the works of [[John Locke]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], both of whom are known as forerunners of ideas that would be developed by theorists such as [[John Dewey]]. Considered one of the first of the British [[empiricists]], Locke believed that "truth and knowledge… arise out of observation and experience rather than manipulation of accepted or given ideas".<ref name="Hayes">{{cite book
|title=The progressive education movement: Is it still a factor in today's schools?
|first=William
|last=Hayes
|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Education
|year=2006}}
</ref>{{rp|2}} He further discussed the need for children to have concrete experiences in order to learn. Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in [[Emile, or On Education]], where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education.

===Johann Bernhard Basedow===
In Germany, [[Johann Bernhard Basedow]] (1724–1790) established the Philanthropinum at [[Dessau]] in 1774. He developed new teaching methods based on conversation and play with the child, and a program of physical development. Such was his success that he wrote a treatise on his methods, "On the best and hitherto unknown method of teaching children of noblemen".

===Christian Gotthilf Salzmann===
[[Christian Gotthilf Salzmann]] (1744–1811) was the founder of the [[Schnepfenthal institution]], a school dedicated to new modes of education (derived heavily from the ideas of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]). He wrote ''Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children'', one of the first books translated into English by [[Mary Wollstonecraft]].

=== Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ===
[[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] (1746–1827) was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[pedagogue]] and educational reformer who exemplified [[Romanticism]] in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by head, hand and heart". His research and theories closely resemble those outlined by Rousseau in Emile. He is further considered by many to be the "father of modern educational science"<ref name="Hayes" /> His psychological theories pertain to education as they focus on the development of object teaching, that is, he felt that individuals best learned through experiences and through a direct manipulation and experience of objects. He further speculated that children learn through their own internal motivation rather than through compulsion. (See Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation). A teacher's task will be to help guide their students as individuals through their learning and allow it to unfold naturally.<ref>{{cite book
|title = A History of Education in American Culture
|first1 = R. Freeman
|last1 = Butts
|first2 = Lawrence
|last2 = Cremin
|year = 1958
}}</ref>

===Friedrich Fröbel===
[[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]] (1782–1852) was a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern [[education]] based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. He believed in "self-activity" and play as essential factors in child education. The teacher's role was not to indoctrinate but to encourage self-expression through play, both individually and in group activities. He created the concept of [[kindergarten]].

===Johann Friedrich Herbart===
[[Johann Friedrich Herbart]] (1776–1841) emphasized the connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution. The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blyth |first=A. |year=1981 |title=From individuality to character: the Herbartian sociology applied to education| journal=British Journal of Educational Studies|volume=29 |number=1 |pages=69–79 |doi=10.2307/3120425|jstor=3120425 }}</ref> According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development.  In order to develop a child to lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a methodology with five formal steps: "Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller |first=E.J. |year=2003|title=Teaching methods, the Herbartian revolution and Douglas Clay Ridgley at Illinois State Normal University |journal=Journal of Geography|volume=102 |issue=3 |page=114 |doi=10.1080/00221340308978532|bibcode=2003JGeog.102..110W |s2cid=216139376 }}</ref>

===John Melchior Bosco===
[[John Bosco|John Melchior Bosco]] (1815–1888) was concerned about the education of street children who had left their villages to find work in the rapidly industrialized city of [[Turin]], Italy. Exploited as cheap labor or imprisoned for unruly behavior, Bosco saw the need for creating a space where they would feel at home. He called it an 'Oratory' where they could play, learn, share friendships, express themselves, develop their creative talents and pick up skills for gainful self-employment. With those who had found work, he set up a mutual-fund society (an early version of the [[Grameen Bank]]) to teach them the benefits of saving and self-reliance. The principles underlying his educational method that won over the hearts and minds of thousands of youth who flocked to his oratory were: 'be reasonable', 'be kind', 'believe' and 'be generous in service'. Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the [[Salesian Society]] he founded in 1873.

===Cecil Reddie===
While studying for his doctorate in [[Göttingen]] in 1882–1883, [[Cecil Reddie]] was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there.  Reddie founded [[Abbotsholme School]] in [[Derbyshire]], England, in 1889. Its curriculum enacted the ideas of progressive education. Reddie rejected rote learning, classical languages and corporal punishment. He combined studies in modern languages and the sciences and arts with a program of physical exercise, manual labour, recreation, crafts and arts. Schools modeling themselves after Abbotsholme were established throughout Europe, and the model was particularly influential in Germany.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Encyclopædia Britannica
|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/494634/Cecil-Reddie
|access-date=10 October 2013
}}</ref> Reddie often engaged foreign teachers, who learned its practices, before returning home to start their own schools. [[Hermann Lietz]] an Abbotsholme teacher founded five schools (Landerziehungsheime für Jungen) on Abbotsholme's principles.<ref name="ONDB">{{cite book
|first=Peter
|last=Searby
|title= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2004
}}</ref> Other people he influenced included [[Kurt Hahn]], [[Adolphe Ferrière]] and [[Edmond Demolins]]. His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo)

===John Dewey===
Education according to [[John Dewey]] is the "participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" (Dewey, 1897, para. 1).  As such, education should take into account that the student is a social being. The process begins at birth with the child unconsciously gaining knowledge and gradually developing their knowledge to share and partake in society.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Froebel's Educational Principles
|first=John
|last=Dewey
|chapter=5
|publisher=University of Chicago
|year= 1915
|pages=111–127
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=The Development of Education in the Twentieth Century
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190444
|first=Adolphe Erich
|last=Meyer
|publisher=Prentice Hall
|year=1939
}}</ref>

For Dewey, education, which regulates "the process of coming to share in the social consciousness," is the "only sure" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para. 60). In this respect, Dewey foreshadows [[Critical pedagogy|Social Reconstructionism]], whereby schools are a means to reconstruct society.  As schools become a means for social reconstruction, they must be given the proper equipment to perform this task and guide their students.<ref>Dewey, John. (1897). My pedagogical creed. ''School Journal''. 54. pp.&nbsp;77–80. Retrieved on November 4, 2011, from http://dewey.pragmatism.org/creed.htm</ref>

===Helen Parkhurst===
The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) developed the [[Dalton Plan]] at the beginning of the twentieth century with the goal of reforming the then current pedagogy and classroom management. She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching. During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more. In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds. Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom. The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments. In this way, learning became the students' own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves. The classroom turned into a laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects. Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students' reach. The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction. This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards. The only addition was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject.<ref name="Dalton education">{{cite web |title= Piet van der Ploeg &#124; Academica UoAS, Amsterdam - Academia.edu|url=https://xs4all.academia.edu/PietvanderPloeg/Dalton-education |last=van der Ploeg |first=Piet |website=Academia}}</ref>

In the nineteen-twenties and nineteen-thirties, Dalton education spread throughout the world. There is no certainty regarding the exact numbers of Dalton schools, but there was Dalton education in America, Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/11012748 |title=Dalton School, Dalton Plan, Dalton Education |last=van der Ploeg |first=Piet |website=Academia}}</ref>

===Rudolf Steiner===
[[Rudolf Steiner]] (1861–1925) first described the principles of what was to become [[Waldorf education]] in 1907. He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919. The focus of the education is on creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum that holistically integrates practical, artistic, social, and academic experiences.<ref>* [http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/steinere.pdf Heiner Ullrich, "Rudolf Steiner"], ''Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education'' (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol.XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, p.&nbsp;555–572</ref><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/the-big-question-who-was-rudolf-steiner-and-what-were-his-revolutionary-teaching-ideas-433407.html "Who was Rudolf Steiner and what were his revolutionary teaching ideas?"], [[Richard Garner]], Education Editor, ''The Independent''</ref> There are more than a thousand schools and many more [[early childhood]] centers worldwide; it has also become a popular form of [[homeschooling]].<ref name=schulliste>{{cite web| url = http://www.freunde-waldorf.de/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Waldorf_World_List/Waldorf_World_List.pdf| title = Statistics for Waldorf schools worldwide}}</ref><ref>M. L. Stevens, "The Normalisation of Homeschooling in the USA", ''Evaluation & Research in Education'' Volume 17, Issue 2–3, 2003, pp. 90–100</ref>

===Maria Montessori===
[[Maria Montessori]] (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897. She based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "scientific pedagogy", arguing for the need to go beyond observation and measurement of students, to developing new methods to transform them. Although [[Montessori education]] spread to the United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick. However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there.

In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference. Hosted by Rev Bertram Hawker,<ref name=Hawker>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hawker-bertram-robert-10456|title=Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 14|author=D. & M. Van Dissel|publisher=Melbourne University Press 1996|access-date=4 April 2019|chapter=Hawker, Bertram Robert (1868–1952)}}</ref> who had set up, in partnership with his local elementary school in the Norfolk coastal village of East Runton, the first Montessori School in England. Pictures of this school, and its children,  illustrated the 'Montessori's Own Handbook' (1914).<ref name=Montessori>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/drmontessorisown00mont|title=Dr Montessori's Own Handbook|author=Dr Maria Montessori|publisher=Robert Bently Inc. 1914|access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref> Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work. He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written a government report on Montessori. The conference decided that its remit was to promote the 'liberation of the child in the school', and though inspired by Montessori, would encourage, support and network teachers and educationalists who sought, through their schools and methods, that aim. They changed their name the following year to New Ideals in Education. Each subsequent conference was opened with reference to its history and origin as a Montessori Conference recognising her inspiration, reports italicized the members of the Montessori Society in the delegate lists, and numerous further events included Montessori methods and case studies. Montessori, through New Ideals in Education, its committee and members, events and publications, greatly influenced progressive state education in England. (references to be added).

===Robert Baden-Powell===
In July 1906, [[Ernest Thompson Seton]] sent [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell|Robert Baden-Powell]] a copy of his book ''The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians''. Seton was a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States. They shared ideas about youth training programs.<ref name="SetonInfed">{{cite web |year=2002 |url=http://www.infed.org/thinkers/seton.htm |title=Ernest Thompson Seton and Woodcraft |publisher=InFed |access-date=2006-12-07}}</ref><ref name="BPInfed">{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Robert Baden-Powell as an Educational Innovator |publisher=InFed |url=http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-bp.htm |access-date=2006-12-07}}</ref> In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called ''Boy Patrols''. In the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on [[Brownsea Island Scout camp|Brownsea Island]] in England.<ref>{{cite book|author=Woolgar, Brian|author2=La Riviere, Sheila|year=2002|title=Why Brownsea? The Beginnings of Scouting |publisher=Brownsea Island Scout and Guide Management Committee}}</ref> His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader.<ref>{{cite web |author=Johnny Walker| title=Scouting Milestones&nbsp;— Brownsea Island|url=http://www.scouting.milestones.btinternet.co.uk/brownsea.htm|access-date=2006-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614022349/http://www.scouting.milestones.btinternet.co.uk/brownsea.htm|archive-date=2011-06-14}}</ref> Baden Powell then wrote ''[[Scouting for Boys]]'' (London, 1908). The Brownsea camp and the publication of  ''Scouting for Boys'' are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement which spread throughout the world. Baden-Powell and his sister [[Agnes Baden-Powell]] introduced the [[Girl Guide and Girl Scout|Girl Guides]] in 1910.

===Comparison with traditional education===
{{Main|Traditional education}}

Traditional education uses extrinsic motivation, such as grades and prizes. Progressive education is more likely to use intrinsic motivation, basing activities on the interests of the child. Praise may be discouraged as a motivator.<ref name="Kohn1999">{{cite book|author=Alfie Kohn|title=Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A's, Praise, and Other Bribes|url=https://archive.org/details/punishedbyreward00kohn_0|url-access=registration|access-date=8 June 2013|date=30 September 1999|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-52615-7}}</ref><ref name="Montessori2006">{{cite book|author=Maria Montessori|title=The Montessori Method|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2l-xJQDziqcC&pg=PR7|access-date=8 June 2013|date=1 September 2006|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59605-943-6|page=21}}</ref> Progressive education is a response to traditional methods of teaching. It is defined as an educational movement which gives more value to experience than formal learning. It is based more on experiential learning that concentrate on the development of a child's talents.<ref name="ThoughtCo"/>

===21st century skills===
{{Main|21st century skills}}
21st century skills are a series of higher-order [[skills]], abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in the rapidly changing, digital society and workplaces.  Many of these skills are also defining qualities of ''progressive education'' as well as being associated with [[Deeper Learning|deeper learning]], which is based on mastering skills such as analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork.  These skills differ from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily content knowledge-based.<ref name="Dede">[http://sttechnology.pbworks.com/f/Dede_(2010)_Comparing%20Frameworks%20for%2021st%20Century%20Skills.pdf Chris Dede, Comparing Frameworks for 21st Century Skills, Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2009].  Retrieved 2016-03-09</ref><ref name="Graham">[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stedman-graham/preparing-for-the-21st-ce_b_6738538.html Stedman Graham, ''Preparing for the 21st Century: Soft Skills Matter'', Huffington Post, April 26, 2015].  Retrieved 2016-03-16</ref><ref>[https://larrycuban.wordpress.com/2015/11/03/content-vs-skills-in-high-schools-21st-century-arguments-echo-19th-century-conflicts/ Larry Cuban, ''Content vs. skills in high schools - 21st century arguments echo 19th century conflicts,'' November 3, 2015].  Retrieved 2016-03-12</ref> The focus of progressive pedagogies on fostering 21st-century skills may also explain why these schools maintain their appeal, particularly among a segment of highly-educated, middle-class parents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goossens |first1=Cedric |title=White Middle-Class Parents’ Unconventional Choice for a Public, Ethnically Mixed Progressive School: An Alternative Pathway to Success? |journal=Journal of School Choice |date=4 August 2024 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1080/15582159.2024.2386653}}</ref>