Editing Pope Adrian IV (section)

==Early life==
The son of Richard Breakspear,{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} his family was a relatively humble one.{{sfn|Summerson|2004}} The exact year of his birth is unknown but he was probably around 55 years old on his election.{{sfn|Norwich|2011}} Little is known{{refn|The only reliable source closest to his own life is that by Cardinal Boso in the ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'', but, comments Brooke, "this is exceedingly terse on his early life", noting only his nationality and voyage to France for learning.{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=4}}|group=note}} of his background, and that which is, comments Brooke, "savour[s] of gossip rather than sober history."{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=4}} He was probably born in or around the Hertfordshire town of [[St Albans]]. As a result, much of that that is thought to be known may well be mythological "tradition woven at the great abbey" there.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} Much of what is known is brought to historians by the writings of [[Boso of Santa Pudenziana|Cardinal Boso]] and [[William of Newburgh]], both of whom were, however, writing over 30 years after Breakspear's death.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=291}} As a result, notes Poole, there is a dearth of information—and especially dates—for Breakspear's life until his election as pope, and "all that can be said is that the dates commonly given are in every instance wrong".{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=293}} The English [[chronicle]]r [[Matthew Paris]] says he came from [[Abbots Langley]],{{sfn|Maxwell-Stuart|1997|p=97}} although Paris mistakenly ascribes to his father the name [[Robert de Camera]].{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=5}} Robert may have been a clerk{{sfn|Maxwell-Stuart|1997|p=97}}{{refn|Christopher Brooke also surmises that, with a surname such as "Camera", he was likely to have been a clerk.{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=6}}|group=note}} although Sayers suggests that Paris' claim that Robert was a priest is probably correct, as is the likelihood that he later became a monk.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}}{{refn|Richard may have been a married priest, as, during his son's later struggle with the Holy Roman Emperor, the latter asserted it was the case as a slur.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} This was not unusual in the 12th-century church. The historian [[Anne Llewellyn Barstow]] says: "Despite six hundred years of decrees, canons, and increasingly harsh penalties, the Latin clergy still...lived with their wives and raised families. In practice, ordination was not an impediment to marriage; therefore some priests did marry even after ordination."{{sfn|Barstow|1982|p=45}} The practice was generally confined to lower orders, such as [[subdeacon]]s, however, it may be that de Camera was one such.{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=19}}|group=note}} As such, there are grounds for believing Nicholas to have been illegitimate.{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=4}} Nicholas had a brother called either Ranulf or Randall, a [[clerk]] in [[Feering]], Essex.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} Paris is also the source for Nicholas' surname being Breakspear.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}}

Paris recounts a story that Nicholas was rejected by [[Abbot of St Albans|Abbot Robert de Gorron]] from taking his [[novitiate]] at the abbey, although as Poole points out, the story is demonstrably incorrect as Robert did not become abbot until 1151.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=292}} Sayers, suggests that, true or not, during and after Breakspear's pontificate, "certainly St Albans fed upon the story of the local boy who had made good".{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} William of Newburgh reports that Nicholas was too poor to receive anything more than a rudimentary education, and Brooke speculates that he travelled to France to learn the skills of a clerk. This was, he notes, a normal path to preferment in the 12th century, although it was more unusual for those that did so to have Breakspear's inauspicious background.{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=19}} He may have become a [[Canon (priest)|canon]] at the [[Augustinian priory]] in [[Merton, Surrey]].{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} Poole subscribes to this theory, citing a letter to Breakspear when pope in which he is reminded that "your worship was wont to speak" of Merton in conversation.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=293}}

===Move to France and promotion===
[[File:St Alban's cathedral - geograph.org.uk - 1344.jpg|thumb|St Albans Abbey, now a Cathedral, pictured in 2005|alt=Colour photograph of St Albans Abbey, now a cathedral|left]]
The next point at which Breakspear can be positively identified is in the [[Southern France|Southern French]] town of [[Arles]], where he continued his studies{{sfn|Parry|1997|p=18}} in [[canon law]],{{sfn|Duggan|2004|p=189 n.80}} and probably under the masters of Roman law also.{{sfn|Egger|2003|p=20}} On completion of his studies he became a [[canon regular]] at the Abbey of Saint-Ruf in [[Avignon]],{{refn|In English, St Rufus,{{sfn|Parry|1997|p=18}} this was an important regional [[motherhouse]].{{sfn|Zinn|1995|p=1481}}{{sfn|Morris|1989|p=190}}|group=note}} around {{convert|40|km|mi}} to the north of Arles. He was soon appointed [[Prior (ecclesiastical)|prior]]{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=291}} and then abbot of St Ruf.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} While still a canon, in 1140 he appears to have written a charter in [[Barcelona]].{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=294}} However, there appear to have been complaints that he was overly strict,{{sfn|Norwich|2011}} and the monks rebelled.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=294}} As a result, he was summoned to Rome;{{sfn|Parry|1997|p=18}}{{sfn|Norwich|2011}} a temporary peace was established, but it was not long until the monks rebelled again.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=294}} Breakspear may have visited Rome three times while at St Ruf—"each time with more conspicuous success"—and which would have consumed many months of his time.{{sfn|Poole|1969|pp=294–295}}

Sayers suggests that it was while Breakspear was at St Ruf that he attracted the attention of [[Pope Eugenius III]],{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} who saw in him useful leadership qualities.{{sfn|Parry|1997|p=18}}{{refn|Eugenius may also have been an [[Anglophile]], as it appears that he once told John of Salisbury "that he found the English admirably fitted to perform any task they turned their hand to, and thus to be preferred to all other races – except, he added, when frivolity got the better of them".{{sfn|Norwich|1970|p=172}}|group=note}} It is known that in 1147, while Eugenius was in [[Vico Pancellorum|Vico]] he granted one "N. abbot of St Rufus".{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=294}} It was probably in 1148 that Breakspear met one who would become his good friend, [[John of Salisbury]], in [[Rheims]],{{sfn|Brooke|2003|p=7}} and soon after when Eugenius{{sfn|Morris|1989|p=190}}{{sfn|Bolton|2003a|p=75}} appointed him [[Cardinal-Bishop]] of [[Roman Catholic Suburbicarian Diocese of Albano|Albano]],{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} making Adrian at the time only the second Englishman to have been promoted to that rank.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=355}}{{refn|The first had been the theologian [[Robert Pullen]], to the Cardinalate of [[SS. Martino e Silvestro]].{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=355}}|group=note}} in which capacity he attended the [[Council of Reims (1148)|Council of Reims]] in November 1148.{{sfn|Duggan|2004|p=180}}{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=33}} Poole suggests that Breakspear's promotion was Eugenius' method of alleviating the monks' complaints, as Eugenius told them to "go forth [and] elect you a father with whom ye can or will live in peace; he [Breakspear] shall no longer be a burthen to you".{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=294}} When Breakspear was later pope, however, he seemed to favour St Ruf well, for example authorising them to send a delegation to the [[Cathedral chapter|chapter]] of [[Pisa Cathedral]] to cut stone and columns. The chapter was requested, says Egger, to "help them in every possible way to conduct their business".{{sfn|Egger|2003|p=27}}

Poole questions the reasoning for Breakspear's episcopal promotion. Not only was his abbey an obscure one, with little political value or great endowment, but Breakspear's reasons for attending the Papal court were unlikely to have enabled him to make a name for himself. Indeed, on at least one occasion it was in response to a summons concerning his behaviour. However, suggest Poole, a possible explanation may have its roots in Breakspear's residency at Merton.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=295}}{{refn|Poole suggests that in the early-to-mid-portion of the 12th century, Merton was much favoured by [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Séez#Bishops|John, Bishop of Séez]], and it had been Bishop John who had appointed Robert Pullen to the [[Archdeacon of Rochester#High Medieval|Archdeaconry of Rochester]]; by 1149, Pullen was Papal Chancellor and, Poole suggests, listened favourably to the recommendation of Séez regarding Breakspeare, particularly as he was a fellow countryman.{{sfn|Poole|1969|p=295}}|group=note}} Duggan notes that the Cardinal Bishopric of Albino was part of the Pope's inner circle, which she suggests makes his rapid elevation to such a sensitive position all the more remarkable and indicative of the now-unrecognisable qualities that Eugenius saw in him.{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=201}}

===Voyage to Catalonia===
It was probably at the Council of Reims that Eugenius selected Breakspear for a mission to Catalonia,{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=33}}{{refn|The scholar Damian Smith notes a pre-existing connection between Breakspear and the region through his predecessor at St Ruf, [[Olegarius]], abbot between 1113 and 1118,{{sfn|McCrank|1978|pp=162, nn.15+17}} and who had then been unwillingly promoted to the [[Bishopric of Barcelona]] and subsequently the [[Archbishopric of Tarragona]]. He also became an important advisor to Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=33}}|group=note}} possibly as a kind of unofficial legate to the crusaders.{{sfn|Constable|1953|p=25}} Breakspear met [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona]] who had been waging the latest campaign against the Moors since 1147. Although no records exist to show Breakspear was involved in the campaign itself, he was heavily involved in the reorganisation and administration of the [[Cistercian Order]], as well as arbitrating disputes within its congregation.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=35}} It is likely that he was present at the [[Siege of Lleida (1149)|Siege of Lleida]] during the summer of 1149. He is less likely to have still been there in October, when it fell, as he had returned to Rome by December. However, he may well have brought news of another successful siege—[[Siege of Tortosa (1148)|that of Tortosa]]—which would have been particularly welcome to the "bruised and battered" papacy of Eugenius, says Damian Smith.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=36}} Smith also notes that Breakspear's lengthy absence from St Ruf may have been a source of complaint by his monks, "but this was surely not of prime importance to the Pope".{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=36}} Egger suggests, however, that Breakspear's Catalonian mission was of great benefit to St Ruf, which became the blueprint for the religious houses created by Berenguer in the wake of the retreating Muslim empire.{{sfn|Egger|2003|p=25}}{{refn|St Ruf's observances, suggests Egger, became popular with the Catalonian nobility as well as the church, so was "of no small advantage to the order".{{sfn|Egger|2003|p=25}}|group=note}}

Around mid-1152, he was despatched to [[Scandinavia]] as [[Papal legate]].{{sfn|Sayers|2004}}

===Visit to Scandinavia, 1152===
[[File:Trondheim-cathedral-1.jpg|thumb|Trondheim Cathedral|alt=modern photo of Trondheim Cathedral, 2005]]
Former [[Canon residentiary]] of St Albans Abbey, Andes Bergquist has described Breakspear's journey to northern Europe as "one of the better documented" of his career. It is possible that Boso—from whom much of the information comes—was in his entourage, although this is not certain.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|pp=41, 42}} On his arrival, Norway was in a [[Civil war era in Norway|state of civil war]] and the authority of the King, [[Inge I of Norway|Inge I]], was neither strong nor respected. Breakspear reconciled the warring factions—albeit temporarily—and restored the monarchy.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Although no official record of his instructions survives, Bergquist suggests that they can be inferred from his actions: to divide the existing Archbishopric of Lund—which covered both Norway and Sweden–into two distinct national metropolitans, to arrange payment of Peter's Pence and to generally reorganise the church along Italian and European lines.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=42}}

Breakspear may have travelled to Norway via France and England{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=43}}—where, Sayers speculates, he could have recruited merchant contacts who knew the region.{{sfn|Sayers|2004}}{{sfn|Andås|Ekroll|Haug|Petersen|2007|p=9}} His mission may have been kept quiet, as Bergquist notes his arrival seems to have been unexpected: Archbishop Eskil of Lund had recently left to visit France, and the King of Norway was on a military campaign.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=44}} His first stop was Norway. At some point, Breakspear presided over a council at [[Nidaros]]. This council, says Robinson, "strengthened the economic position of the church and the social status of the clergy".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Its timing though is difficult to ascertain, says Bergquist: Autumn 1152 seems to allow too little time to organise such a major council following his arrival, yet much later and the depth of a Norwegian winter is even more unlikely.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|pp=44–45}}

The focal point of the [[Olaf II of Norway#Liturgical cult|cult of St Olaf]],{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Nidaros had until that point been only an episcopate.{{sfn|Andås|Ekroll|Haug|Petersen|2007|p=9}} Adrian's council was intended to promulgate [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|canons]].{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} To this end Breakspear made Nidaros a geographically extensive ecclesiastical [[province]], covering the whole of Norway, Iceland and Greenland, as well as the [[Faroe Islands|Faroe]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland Island]]s. Breakspear also authorised the expansion of what was to become Europe's [[Trondheim Cathedral|most northerly medieval cathedral]], and its largest.{{sfn|Andås|Ekroll|Haug|Petersen|2007|p=9}} While in Norway he founded three [[cathedral schools]], at Nidaros in 1152 and two more at [[Bergen]] and [[Hamar]] the following year.{{sfn|Sjåvik|2008|p=63}} His work in Norway earned him the praise of contemporary Icelandic writer and politician, [[Snorri Sturluson]].{{sfn|Duggan|2003b|p=200}}

If the Council of Nidaros was held in the early months of 1153, suggests Bergquist, then it appears that Breakspear sailed to Sweden as soon as it was concluded.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=44}} His activities in Sweden followed a similar course to those in Norway.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}} He called another council, this time at [[Linköping]], which reorganised the Swedish church under the [[Archbishop of Lund]] (it had previously been subject to German patriarchy).{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} He also received permission from the [[Swedish monarchy]] to introduce [[Peter's pence]]{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} and to reduce the influence of the lay community on the church generally.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}} His visit to Sweden was recorded by contemporary chroniclers and published in the 13th century.{{sfn|Phelpstead|2001|p=xxxiv}} Similarly to what he had done in Norway with Trondheim,{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} Adrian attempted to create an archepiscopal see in Sweden. The [[Swedes (tribe)|Swedes]] and the [[Geats]] could not come into an agreement on the location of the see, and the venture came to nothing.{{sfn|Eden|2006|pp=292–293}} According to Bergquist, Breakspear "was taken aback by this unseemly conflict, and declared that neither people deserved this highest ecclesiastical honour".{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}} Indeed, he suggests that it is possible that Breakspear's plans fell through thanks to the machinations of the recently returned Archbishop Eskil. Eskil, having discovered that he had lost half his archepiscopate in his absence, may have stirred up the Swedes' and Geats' rivalries to ensure against losing any more. In the event, Breakspear appears to have repaired relations with Eskil, assuring him that Eskil would receive far more than he had lost. As a result, he placed Eskil in charge of the new Swedish metropolitan.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=46}}

Duggan describes Adrian's legation in the north as a "diplomatic triumph",{{sfn|Duggan|2003a|p=153}} being so successful, says Sayers, "that he was later seen as the apostle of Scandinavia".{{sfn|Sayers|2004}} Boso later lauded how Breakspear brought "peace to the kingdoms, law to the barbarians, tranquillity to the monasteries, order to the churches, discipline to the clergy and a people pleasing to God, devoted to good works".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=349}} He successfully introduced a new Scandinavian [[tythe]]—the ''denarium sancti Petri'', or payment to St Peter—a financial acknowledgement by the Scandinavian church of Papal primacy.{{sfn|Sheehy|1961|pp=48–49}} Breakspear, argues the scholar Andrew Beck, "gave the Swedish church its hierarchy and its attachment to Rome".{{sfn|Beck|1940|p=383}}{{refn|Breakspear was one of two English clerics who influenced Scandinavian Christianity at this time; the other was [[Henry (bishop of Finland)|Henry, Bishop of Uppsala]], who was originally from St Albans.{{sfn|Singleton|1998|p=18}}|group=note}} He left Scandinavia in autumn 1154; he seems to have left a generally good impression in the region: A later [[Kings' sagas|saga]] refers to Breakspear as "the good cardinal...now considered a saint".{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=41}} On his return to Rome he found Pope Eugenius had died the previous year, and that his successor had followed him only a few weeks before; the [[College of Cardinals]] was seeking a successor.{{sfn|Bergquist|2003|p=41}}