Editing Polysemy (section)

==Polysemes==
A polyseme is a word or phrase with different, but related, [[Word sense|senses]]. Since the test for polysemy is the vague concept of the relatedness, judgments of polysemy can be difficult to make. Because applying pre-existing words to new situations is a natural process of language change, looking at words' [[etymology]] is helpful in determining polysemy but not the only solution; as words become lost in etymology, what once was a useful distinction of meaning may no longer be so. Some seemingly unrelated words share a common historical origin, however, so etymology is not an infallible test for polysemy, and dictionary writers also often defer to speakers' intuitions to judge polysemy in cases where it contradicts etymology.<ref name="ambiguity">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1006/jmla.2001.2810| issn = 0749-596X| volume = 46| issue = 2| pages = 245–266| last1 = Rodd| first1 = Jennifer| last2 = Gaskell| first2 = Gareth| last3 = Marslen-Wilson| first3 = William| title = Making sense of semantic ambiguity: Semantic competition in lexical access| journal = Journal of Memory and Language| accessdate = 2023-06-25| date = 2002| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222782094 }}</ref> English has many polysemous words. For example, the verb "to [[wikt:get|get]]" can mean "procure" (''I'll get the drinks''), "become" (''she got scared''), "understand" (''I get it'') etc.

In linear or vertical polysemy, one sense of a word is a subset of the other. These are examples of [[hyponymy and hypernymy]], and are sometimes called autohyponyms.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/24023/|title=On the distinction between metonymy and vertical polysemy in encyclopaedic semantics|last=Koskela|first=Anu|year=2005|journal=Sussex Research Online|access-date=30 June 2014}}</ref> For example, 'dog' can be used for 'male dog'. Alan Cruse identifies four types of linear polysemy:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Meaning in Language|last=Cruse|first=D Alan|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|chapter=Contextual variability}}</ref>

* autohyponymy, where the basic sense leads to a specialised sense (from "drinking (anything)" to "drinking (alcohol)") 
* automeronymy, where the basic sense leads to a subpart sense (from "door (whole structure)" to "door (panel)")
* autohyperonymy or autosuperordination, where the basic sense leads to a wider sense (from "(female) cow" to "cow (of either sex)")
* autoholonymy, where the basic sense leads to a larger sense (from "leg (thigh and calf)" to "leg (thigh, calf, knee and foot)")

In non-linear polysemy, the original sense of a word is used figuratively to provide a different way of looking at the new subject. Alan Cruse identifies three types of non-linear polysemy:<ref name=":0" />

* [[metonymy]], where one sense "stands for" another (from "hands (body part)" to "hands (manual labourers)")
* [[metaphor]], where there is a resemblance between senses (from "swallowing (a pill)" to "swallowing (an argument)")
* other construals (for example, from "month (of the year)" to "month (30 days)")

There are several tests for polysemy, but one of them is [[Zeugma and syllepsis|zeugma]]: if one word seems to exhibit zeugma when applied in different [[context (language use)|context]]s, it is probable that the contexts bring out different polysemes of the same word. If the two senses of the same word do not seem to ''fit,'' yet seem related, then it is probable that they are polysemous. This test again depends on speakers' judgments about relatedness, which means that it is not infallible, but merely a helpful conceptual aid.

The difference between [[homonyms]] and polysemes is subtle. [[lexicography|Lexicographers]] define polysemes within a single dictionary [[Lemma (morphology)|lemma]], while homonyms are treated in separate entries, numbering different meanings (or lemmata). [[Semantic shift]] can separate a polysemous word into separate homonyms. For example, ''[[cheque|check]]'' as in "bank check" (or ''Cheque''), ''check'' in chess, and ''check'' meaning "verification" are considered homonyms, while they originated as a single word derived from [[chess]] in the 14th century. Psycholinguistic experiments have shown that homonyms and polysemes are represented differently within people's mental [[lexicon]]: while the different meanings of homonyms (which are semantically unrelated) tend to interfere or compete with each other during comprehension, this does not usually occur for the polysemes that have semantically related meanings.<ref name="ambiguity" /><ref name="RoddGaskellMarslenWilson2004">{{cite journal |author1=Jennifer Rodd |author2=M Gareth Gaskell |author3=William Marslen-Wilson  |name-list-style=amp | title= Modelling the effects of semantic ambiguity in word recognition|journal = Cognitive Science | year=2004| volume=28 | pages=89–104|doi=10.1016/j.cogsci.2003.08.002|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Klepousniotou, E., & Baum, S.R. (2007). [http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=148085&custom_att_2=direct Disambiguating the ambiguity advantage effect in word recognition: An advantage for polysemous but not homonymous words]. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 1-24. {{doi|10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.02.001}}</ref><ref>Beretta, A., Fiorentino, R., & Poeppel, D. (2005). [http://ling.umd.edu/~ellenlau/courses/ling646/Beretta_2005.pdf The effects of homonymy and polysemy on lexical access: AN MEG study]. Cognitive Brain Research, 24, 57-65. {{doi|10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.12.006}}</ref> Results for this contention, however, have been mixed.<ref>Klein, D.E., & Murphy, G.L. (2001). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.80.4050&rep=rep1&type=pdf The representation of polysemous words]. Journal of Memory and Language, 45, 259-282. {{doi|10.1006/jmla.2001.2779}}</ref><ref>Klein, D.E., & Murphy, G.L. (2002). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.74.5670&rep=rep1&type=pdf Paper has been my ruin: Conceptual relations of polysemous senses]. Journal of Memory and Language, 47, 548-570. {{doi|10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00020-7}}</ref><ref>Hino, Y., Kusunose, Y., & Lupker, S.J. (2010). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.857.7346&rep=rep1&type=pdf The relatedness-of-meaning effect for ambiguous words in lexical-decision tasks: When does relatedness matter?] Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 180-196. {{doi|10.1037/a0020475}}</ref><ref>Hino, Y., Pexman, P.M., & Lupker, S.J. (2006). [http://psychology.uwo.ca/faculty/lupkerpdfs/Hino%20et%20al.,%202006.pdf Ambiguity and relatedness effects in semantic tasks: Are they due to semantic coding?] Journal of Memory and Language, 55, 247-273. {{doi|10.1016/j.jml.2006.04.001}}</ref>

For [[Dick Hebdige]],<ref>[[Dick Hebdige|Hebdige, D.]] (1979). ''Subculture: The Meaning of Style''. New York: Metheun.</ref> polysemy means that, "each text is seen to generate a potentially infinite range of meanings," making, according to [[Richard Middleton (musicologist)|Richard Middleton]],<ref>[[Richard Middleton (musicologist)|Middleton, Richard]] (1990/2002). ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. {{ISBN|0-335-15275-9}}.</ref> "any homology, out of the most heterogeneous materials, possible. The idea of ''signifying practice''—texts not as communicating or expressing a pre-existing meaning but as 'positioning subjects' within a ''process'' of [[semiosis]]—changes the whole basis of creating social meaning".

[[Charles J. Fillmore|Charles Fillmore]] and [[B. T. S. Atkins|Beryl Atkins']] definition stipulates three elements: (i) the various senses of a polysemous word have a central origin, (ii) the links between these senses form a network, and (iii) understanding the 'inner' one contributes to understanding of the 'outer' one.<ref>{{cite book|title=Polysemy: Theoretical and computational approaches|last1=Fillmore|first1=C J|last2=Atkins|first2=B T S|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2000|editor1-last=Ravin|editor1-first=Y|pages=91–110|chapter=Describing polysemy: The case of "crawl"|isbn=9780191584695|author1-link=Charles J. Fillmore|author2-link=B. T. S. Atkins|editor2-last=Leacock|editor2-first=C|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt5gexKhIlQC}}</ref>

One group of polysemes are those in which a word meaning an activity, perhaps derived from a verb, acquires the meanings of those engaged in the activity, or perhaps the results of the activity, or the time or place in which the activity occurs or has occurred. Sometimes only one of those meanings is intended, depending on [[context (language use)|context]], and sometimes multiple meanings are intended at the same time. Other types are derivations from one of the other meanings that leads to a verb or activity.

===Examples in English===
;
;Man
:# The human species (i.e., man vs. other organisms)
:# Males of the human species (i.e., man vs. woman)
:# Adult males of the human species (i.e., man vs. boy)
:#(As a verb) to operate or constitute a vehicle or machine (To man a ship)
This example shows the specific polysemy where the same word is used at different levels of a [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]].

;Bank
:# [[bank|a financial institution]]
:# the physical building where a financial institution offers services
:# to deposit money or have an account in a bank (e.g. "I bank at the local credit union")
:# a supply of something held in reserve: such as "banking" [[brownie points]]
:# a [[synonym]] for 'rely upon' (e.g. ''"I'm your friend, you can ''bank'' on me"''). It is different, but ''related,'' as it derives from the theme of security initiated by 1.
:'''However:'''  1 is borrowed from Italian ''banco'', a money lender's bench, while a river ''bank'' is a native English word. Today they can be considered [[homonym]]s with ''completely different'' meanings. But originally they were polysemous, since Italian borrowed the word from a Germanic language. The Proto-Germanic cognate for "bank" is *bankiz.<ref>[http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=bank&allowed_in_frame=0 (Etymology on ''etymonline.com'')]: ''Bank'' "earthen incline, edge of a river", c. 1200, probably in Old English but not attested in surviving documents, from a Scandinavian source such as Old Norse ''banki'', Old Danish ''banke'' "sandbank," from Proto-Germanic *''bangkon'' "slope," cognate with *bankiz "shelf".</ref> A river bank is typically visually bench-like in its flatness.

According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', the three most polysemous words in [[English language|English]] are [[:wikt:run#English|''run'']], [[:wikt:put#English|''put'']], and [[:wikt:set#English|''set'']], in that order.<ref>[[Simon Winchester]], [https://www.npr.org/2011/05/30/136796448/has-run-run-amok-it-has-645-meanings-so-far “Has 'run' run amok? It has 645 meanings… so far”]. [[NPR]], 30 May 2011.</ref><ref>Brandon Specktor, [https://www.rd.com/article/most-complicated-word-in-english/ “The most complicated word in English is only three letters long”], ''[[Reader's Digest]]'', 9 Nov 2022.</ref>