Editing Politics of Saudi Arabia (section)

==Constitution==
[[File:Iqra.jpg|thumb|200 px|Verses from the Qur'an, the official constitution of the country]]
Saudi Arabia is an [[absolute monarchy]].<ref name=Cavendish78>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula|last=Cavendish|first=Marshall|year=2007|isbn=978-0761475712|page=78|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse|url-access=limited}}</ref> According to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia, the country's ''de facto'' constitution adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the [[Qur'an]]. The Qur'an and the [[Sunnah]] are declared to be the ''de jure'' country's constitution.<ref name= Gerhard>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of world constitutions, Volume 1|last=Robbers|first=Gerhard|year=2007|isbn=978-0816060788 |page=791}}</ref> There is no legally binding written constitution and the Qur'an and the Sunna remain subject to interpretation. This is carried out by the [[Council of Senior Scholars (Saudi Arabia)|Council of Senior Scholars]], the Saudi religious establishment,<ref>{{cite book |last=Champion |first=Daryl |title=The paradoxical kingdom: Saudi Arabia and the momentum of reform |year=2003 |isbn=978-1850656685 |page=60|publisher=Hurst & Company }}</ref> although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Dadouch |first=Sarah |date=3 August 2021 |title=Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed seeks to reduce influential clerics' power |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-clerics-crown-prince-mohammed/2021/08/02/9ae796a0-e3ed-11eb-88c5-4fd6382c47cb_story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803102359/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-clerics-crown-prince-mohammed/2021/08/02/9ae796a0-e3ed-11eb-88c5-4fd6382c47cb_story.html |archive-date=3 August 2021}}</ref>

The government of Saudi Arabia is led by the monarch, [[Salman of Saudi Arabia|King Salman]], who acceded to the throne on 23 January 2015. No political parties or national elections are permitted,<ref name=Cavendish/> and according to ''[[The Economist]]''{{'}}s [[Democracy Index]], the Saudi government was the eighteenth-most authoritarian regime among the 167 countries rated in 2022, being at it lowest score in 2012 and at its highest from 2020 to 2022.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf |title=The Economist Democracy Index 2010 |author=The Economist Intelligence Unit |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=6 June 2011 |archive-date=6 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180606141853/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Government is dominated by the royal family.<ref name= LoC>{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf |title=Country Profile: Saudi Arabia |author=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division |year=2006 |access-date=20 June 2011 |archive-date=28 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628183858/http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===The King===
{{Main|King of Saudi Arabia}}
{{see also|Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne}}
The Basic Law specifies that the king must be chosen from among the sons of the first king, [[Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia|Abdulaziz Al Saud]], and their male descendants<ref>{{cite book|title=Succession in Saudi Arabia|last=Kechichian|first=Joseph A.|year=2001|isbn=978-0312238803|page=[https://archive.org/details/successioninsaud00kech/page/72 72]|url=https://archive.org/details/successioninsaud00kech/page/72}}</ref> subject to the subsequent approval of  leaders (the [[ulama]]).<ref name=Cavendish78/> In 2007, an "[[Allegiance Council]]" was created, consisting of King Abdulaziz's surviving sons plus a son of each of his deceased sons, to determine who will be the heir apparent (the Crown Prince) after the previous heir apparent dies or accedes to the throne.<ref name="Economist Succession">{{cite news |title=When kings and princes grow old |url=http://www.economist.com/node/16588422 |newspaper=The Economist |date=15 July 2010 |access-date=11 June 2011 |archive-date=29 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229222651/http://www.economist.com/node/16588422 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Mohammad bin Salman|Prince Mohammad bin Salman]] is the current Crown Prince, and is widely regarded as the country's ''[[de facto]]'' ruler.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.dw.com/en/saudi-crown-prince-mohammed-bin-salman-says-israel-has-right-to-homeland/a-43229551|title = Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman says Israel has 'right' to homeland &#124; DW &#124; 03.04.2018|website = [[Deutsche Welle]]|access-date = 16 May 2018|archive-date = 17 May 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180517082612/http://www.dw.com/en/saudi-crown-prince-mohammed-bin-salman-says-israel-has-right-to-homeland/a-43229551|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/04/07/saudi-arabias-mohammed-bin-salman-meet-emmanuel-macron-france/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/04/07/saudi-arabias-mohammed-bin-salman-meet-emmanuel-macron-france/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title = Saudi Arabia's Mohammed bin Salman to meet Emmanuel Macron in France|newspaper = The Telegraph|date = 7 April 2018|last1 = Mulholland|first1 = Rory}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Tharoor | first=Ishaan | title=Analysis – Saudi Arabia's ambitious crown prince comes to a Washington in turmoil | newspaper=Washington Post | date=2018-03-19 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/03/19/saudi-arabias-ambitious-crown-prince-comes-to-a-washington-in-turmoil/ | language=rw | access-date=2021-09-26 | archive-date=17 May 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517083722/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/03/19/saudi-arabias-ambitious-crown-prince-comes-to-a-washington-in-turmoil/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.timesofisrael.com/mohammed-bin-salman-reformist-prince-who-has-shaken-saudi-arabia/|title = Mohammed bin Salman, reformist prince who has shaken Saudi Arabia|website = [[The Times of Israel]]|access-date = 16 May 2018|archive-date = 17 May 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180517083122/https://www.timesofisrael.com/mohammed-bin-salman-reformist-prince-who-has-shaken-saudi-arabia/|url-status = live}}</ref>
[[File:Salman bin Abdull aziz December 9, 2013.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Salman of Saudi Arabia|King Salman]] of Saudi Arabia ({{reign|2015|present}})]]

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia (Government and Society) |encyclopedia=Britannica |access-date=28 April 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503055449/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref> and royal decrees form the basis of the country's legislation.<ref name= Campbell>{{cite book |title=Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East |last=Campbell |first=Christian |year=2007 |page=265 |publisher=Lulu Enterprises Incorporated |isbn=978-1430319146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265 |access-date=7 June 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132432/https://books.google.com/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265 |url-status=live }}</ref> The king is also the prime minister and presides over [[Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia|the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzarāʾ)]], which comprises the first and second deputy prime ministers (usually the first and second in line to the throne respectively), 23 ministers with portfolio, and five ministers of state.<ref>{{cite book |title=International security and the United States: an encyclopedia, Volume 2 |last=DeRouen |first=Karl R. |author2=Bellamy, Paul |year=2008 |isbn=978-0275992552 |page=672|publisher=Praeger Security International }}</ref> The king makes appointments to and dismissals from the council, which is responsible for such executive and administrative matters as foreign and domestic policy, defense, finance, health, and education, administered through numerous separate agencies.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia"/> There is also a 150-member [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Consultative Assembly]], appointed by the King,<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1|last=Stokes|first=Jamie|year=2009|isbn=978-0816071586 |page=611|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> which can propose legislation to the King but has no legislative powers itself,<ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic family law in a changing world: a global resource book|last=Naʻīm|first=Abd Allāh Aḥmad|year=2002|isbn=978-1842770931|page=136|publisher=Zed Books }}</ref> including no role in budget formation. The government budget itself is not fully disclosed to the public. "Fully 40%" ... is labeled 'Other sectors' (including defense, security, intelligence, direct investment of the kingdom's revenues outside the country, and how much goes directly to the royal family).<ref>{{cite book|author=House, Karen Elliott|title=On Saudi Arabia: Its People, Past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future|publisher=Knopf|year=2012|page=25|isbn=978-0307473288|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIu0LSe8aVwC&q=on+saudi+house|quote=All revenue, whether from oil, earnings on the country's $400 billion in foreign reserves, or even traffic fines, flows into the central government in Riyadh – that is, to the royal family. No accounting is given to the public of either total revenues to the Al Saud coffers or total spending by the Al Saud – on behalf of the people and behalf of the ever-expanding royal family.  ... The Majlis Ash-Shura, appointed by the king to `represent` the people has no role in the budget formation. Fully 40% of the budget that is disclosed publicly is labeled `Other sectors` (including defense, security, intelligence, and direct investment of the kingdom's revenues outside the country) and is opaque to the public.|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132433/https://books.google.com/books?id=dIu0LSe8aVwC&q=on+saudi+house|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=lacey-251>{{cite book|last=Lacey|first=Robert|title=Inside the Kingdom : Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists, and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/insidekingdomkin00lace_0|url-access=registration|date=2009|publisher=Viking
|page=[https://archive.org/details/insidekingdomkin00lace_0/page/251 251]
|isbn=978-0670021185|quote=When the Saudi budget is published every year, no less than 40 percent (166.9 billion riyals in the budget for 2008) is labeled `Other sectors`, which includes defense, national security, intelligence, direct investment outside the country, and most interesting of all, how much of the national pie is paid into the coffers of the royal family.
}}</ref>

Although in theory, the country is an [[absolute monarchy]], in practice major policy decisions are made outside these formal governmental structures and not solely by the king. Decisions are made by establishing a consensus within the royal family (comprising the numerous descendants of the kingdom's founder, [[Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia|King Abdulaziz]]). Also, the views of important members of Saudi society, including the [[ulama]] (religious scholars), leading tribal sheiks, and heads of prominent commercial families are considered.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia"/>

As an absolute monarchy, the personality and capabilities of the reigning monarch influence the politics and national policies of the country. [[Saud of Saudi Arabia|King Saud]] ({{reign|1953|1964}}) was considered incompetent and extravagant and his reign led to an economic and political crisis that resulted in his forced abdication.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Saudi Arabia|last=Al Rasheed|first=M. |author-link=Madawi al-Rasheed|year=2010|isbn=978-0521747547|pages=102–105, 110|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]] ({{reign|1964|1975}}) was a "modernist" who favored economic, technological and governmental progress but was also politically and religiously conservative. He directed the country's rapid economic and bureaucratic development of the early 1970s, but also made concessions to the religious establishment, and abandoned plans to broaden political participation.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Saudi Arabia|last=Al Rasheed|first=M. |author-link=Madawi al-Rasheed|year=2010|isbn=978-0521747547|pages=118–120|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]] ({{reign|1975|1982}}) left government largely to his Crown Prince, [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Saudi Arabia|last=Al Rasheed|first=M |author-link=Madawi al-Rasheed|year=2010 |isbn=978-0521747547|page=143|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> who succeeded him as King ({{reign|1982|2005}}). Prince Fahd was a talented administrator who initiated significant industrial development in the Kingdom. He was regarded by many as the "father of the country's modernization".<ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: King Fahd – A forceful but flawed ruler |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/54d03842-0264-11da-84e5-00000e2511c8.html#axzz1SYULboE3 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210211206/https://www.ft.com/content/54d03842-0264-11da-84e5-00000e2511c8#axzz1SYULboE3 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Financial Times |date=1 August 2005 |access-date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> However, during the last 10 years of his reign, ill health prevented him from fully functioning. In the absence of a king who could provide strong central leadership, the state structure began to fragment<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Saudi Arabia|last=Al Rasheed|first=M. |author-link=Madawi al-Rasheed|year=2010|isbn=978-0521747547 |page=212}}</ref> and the country stagnated.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inside the Kingdom|last=Lacey|first=Robert|year=2009 |isbn=978-0099539056|page=264}}</ref> [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|King Abdullah]] ({{reign|2005|2015}}) was seen as a reformer<ref>{{cite news|title=Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia|url=http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=29 November 2010|access-date=18 July 2011|first=Helene|last=Cooper|archive-date=27 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727045836/http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and introduced economic reforms (limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization) and made modernizing changes to the judiciary and government ministries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia|title=Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia (History)|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=28 April 2011|archive-date=3 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503055449/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Royal family===
{{Main|House of Saud}}
The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allow it to hold most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.<ref name= LoC/>
The number of princes is estimated to be anything from 7,000 upwards, with the most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of [[Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia|King Abdulaziz]].<ref name=" FT Saud">{{cite news|title=The House of Saud: rulers of modern Saudi Arabia|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/75aae7ea-cc82-11df-a6c7-00144feab49a.html#axzz1Pon8gQJX|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210211220/https://www.ft.com/content/75aae7ea-cc82-11df-a6c7-00144feab49a#axzz1Pon8gQJX|archive-date=10 December 2022|url-access=subscription|newspaper=Financial Times|date=30 September 2010|access-date=20 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The key ministries have historically been reserved for the royal family,<ref name=Cavendish78/> as are the thirteen regional governorships.<ref>{{cite book|title=The history of Saudi Arabia|last=Bowen|first=Wayne H.|year=2007|isbn=978-0313340123|pages=15, 108}}</ref> With the large number of family members seeking well-paying jobs, critics complain that even "middle management" jobs in the Kingdom are out of reach for non-royal Saudis, limiting upward mobility and incentive for commoners to excel.<ref>{{cite book|author=House, Karen Elliott|title=On Saudi Arabia: Its People, Past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future| publisher=Knopf|year=2012|page=10,13|quote="Al Saud family members hold all the key jobs, not just at the top but right down through middle management, even to regional managers (the governors of all 13 Saudi provinces are princes). At the bottom of the company, ordinary employees are poorly paid and even more poorly trained because management doesn't want an initiative that might threaten its control. ... Nor surprisingly, the Saudi employees of such a stultifying company are sullen, resentful and unmotivated." }}</ref>

The one exception to this rule was [[Khaled al-Tuwaijri]], Secretary-General of the Court and King Abdullah's ''[[éminence grise]]''. He was a commoner and immensely powerful, which meant he was despised by most royals, especially the Sideris, who sacked him as soon as the old king died.

Long term political and government appointments result in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes.<ref>{{cite book|title=State, power and politics in the making of the modern Middle East|url=https://archive.org/details/statepowerpoliti00owen_670|url-access=limited|last=Owen|first=Roger|year=2000|isbn=978-0415196741|page=[https://archive.org/details/statepowerpoliti00owen_670/page/n72 56]}}</ref>
Examples include: [[Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz|King Abdullah]], who was the Commander of the [[Saudi Arabian National Guard|National Guard]] from 1963 until 2010, when he then appointed his son to replace him;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11807255|title=Saudi King Abdullah to go to US for medical treatment|date=21 November 2010|work=BBC News|access-date=20 June 2011|archive-date=30 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930162810/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11807255|url-status=live}}</ref>
Crown [[Prince Sultan]] was Minister of Defense and Aviation from 1962 to 2011; Crown [[Nayef bin Abdul Aziz|Prince Nayef]]  was the Minister of Interior from 1975 until his death in 2012; [[Saud bin Faisal bin Abdul Aziz|Prince Saud]] had been Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1975 to just before his death in 2015;<ref name="bio">{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/Biographies-of-Ministers.aspx|title=Biographies of Ministers|publisher=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington, DC|access-date=20 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616222323/http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/Biographies-of-Ministers.aspx|archive-date=16 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
and [[Salman bin Abdul Aziz|King Salman]] was the Governor of the [[Riyadh]] Region from 1962 to 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=Prince Salman resumes duties at governorate|url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article199149.ece|newspaper=Arab News|date=23 November 2010|access-date=20 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124194326/http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article199149.ece|archive-date=24 November 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the absence of national elections and political parties,<ref name=Cavendish78/> politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.<ref name= Noreng97>{{cite book|title=Crude power: politics and the oil market|url=https://archive.org/details/crudepowerpoliti00nore|url-access=limited|last=Noreng|first=Oystein|year=2005|isbn=978-1845110239|page=[https://archive.org/details/crudepowerpoliti00nore/page/n145 97]}}</ref> The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions, and ideological differences.<ref name= Noreng97/> The most powerful clan faction is known as the '[[Sudairi|Sudairi Seven]]', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants.<ref name="Economist Succession"/> Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform,<ref name= Kostiner236/> and whether the role of the [[ulama]] should be increased or reduced. There were also divisions within the family over who should succeed Crown Prince Sultan.<ref name="Economist Succession"/><ref name=David33>{{cite book |title=Catastrophic consequences: civil wars and American interests|url=https://archive.org/details/catastrophiccons00davi_914|url-access=limited|last=David |first=Steven R.|year=2008|isbn=978-0801889899|pages=[https://archive.org/details/catastrophiccons00davi_914/page/n47 33]–34}}</ref>

Leading figures in the royal family with differing ideological orientations included [[Nayef bin Abdulaziz Al Saud|Prince Nayef]], the late Interior Minister, and [[Saud bin Faisal bin Abdulaziz|Prince Saud Al-Faisal]], the Foreign Minister. Prince Nayef was personally committed to maintaining Saudi Arabia's conservative Wahhabi values. Of the senior princes, he was probably the least comfortable with King Abdullah's desire for reform. Following the [[9/11|11 September 2001 attacks]] in the United States, perpetrated mostly by Saudi nationals, Prince Nayef was strongly criticized by the U.S. for his reaction. It also took pressure from within the royal family for him to launch a hunt for Islamist militants who had attacked Western targets in Saudi Arabia. By contrast, Prince Saud Al Faisal is one of the strongest supporters of political and social reform.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7068977.stm|title=Who's who: Senior Saudis|date=30 October 2007|work=BBC News|access-date=21 July 2011|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224092929/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7068977.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, he (as well as King Abdullah) has spoken in favor of women having the right to vote, to follow the career path they wish, and to be able to drive a car. Women would be able to vote in municipal elections beginning in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-15052030|title=Women in Saudi Arabia to vote and run in elections|work=BBC News|date=25 September 2011|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=18 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018101520/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-15052030|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,360658,00.html|title=The Koran Doesn't Oppose Women Driving|date=15 June 2005|magazine=Der Spiegel|access-date=21 July 2011|archive-date=24 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624143159/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,360658,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===The influence of the ulama===
The significance of the [[ulama]] (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) is derived from the central role of religion in Saudi society. It has been said that Islam is more than a religion, it is a way of life in Saudi Arabia, and, as a result, the influence of the ulama is pervasive.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization|last=Korany|first=Bahgat|author2=Dessouki, Ali E.Hillal|year=2010|isbn=978-9774163609|page=358}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulama a direct role in government,<ref name= Goldstein118>{{cite book |title=Religion and the State|url=https://archive.org/details/religionstate0000gold|url-access=registration|last=Goldstein|first=Natalie|author2=Brown-Foster |author3=Walton |year=2010|isbn=978-0816080908 |page=[https://archive.org/details/religionstate0000gold/page/118 118]|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> the only other example being [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia A Country Study |last=Federal Research Division|year=2004|isbn=978-1419146213|page=232}}</ref> Prior to 1971, a council of senior ulama advising the king was headed by the [[Grand Mufti]] and met informally.  In that year, the council was formalized in a [[Council of Senior Scholars (Saudi Arabia)|Council of Senior Scholars]], appointed by the king and with salaries paid by the government.<ref name=ComingStorm>[https://books.google.com/books?id=K_c9FOeeuewC&dq=Council+of+Senior+Scholars+saudi&pg=PA25 "Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm" By Peter W. Wilson] p. 26-27</ref>

Not only is royal succession subject to the approval of the ulama,<ref name=Cavendish78/> so are all new laws (royal decrees).<ref name= Goldstein118/> The ulama have also influenced major executive decisions, for example the imposition of the [[1973 Oil Crisis|oil embargo in 1973]] and the [[1990 Gulf War|invitation of foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990]].<ref name="meforum.org">{{cite journal|author=Nawaf E. Obaid|year=1999|title=The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders|journal=Middle East Quarterly|volume=VI|issue=3|pages=51–58|url=http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders|access-date=23 June 2011|archive-date=6 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806023223/http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders|url-status=live}}</ref> It plays a major role in the judicial and education systems<ref>{{cite book|title=Modernity and tradition: the Saudi equation |last=Farsy|first=Fouad|year=1992|isbn=978-1874132035|page=29|publisher=Knight Communications }}</ref> and has a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.<ref name= Hassner>{{cite book|title=War on sacred grounds|last=Hassner|first=Ron Eduard|year=2009|isbn=978-0801448065|page=[https://archive.org/details/waronsacredgroun00hass/page/143 143]|publisher=Cornell University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/waronsacredgroun00hass/page/143}}</ref>

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulama was in decline.<ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites: conflict and collaboration|last=Abir|first=Mordechai|year=1987|isbn=978-0709951292|page=30|publisher=Croom Helm }}</ref> However, this changed following [[Grand Mosque Seizure|the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979]] by [[Islamist]] radicals.<ref name= Abir21>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia: government, society, and the Gulf crisis|last=Abir |first=Mordechai|year=1993|isbn=978-0415093255|page=21|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulama's powers and increasing their financial support:<ref name= Hegghammer24>{{cite book|title=Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism Since 1979|url=https://archive.org/details/jihadsaudiarabia00hegg|url-access=limited|last=Hegghammer|first=Thomas|year=2010|isbn=978-0521732369|page=[https://archive.org/details/jihadsaudiarabia00hegg/page/n35 24]|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> in particular, they were given greater control over the education system<ref name= Abir21/> and allowed to enforce stricter observance of [[wahhabism|Wahhabi]] rules of moral and social behaviour.<ref name= Hegghammer24/> Following his accession to the throne in 2005, [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|King Abdullah]] took steps to rein back the powers of the ulama, for instance transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.<ref name="NYT Abdullah">{{cite news|title=Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia|url=http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=29 November 2010|access-date=28 June 2011|first=Helene|last=Cooper|archive-date=27 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727045836/http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ulama have historically been led by the [[Al ash-Sheikh]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites: conflict and collaboration|last=Abir|first=Mordechai|year=1987|isbn=978-0709951292|page=4|publisher=Croom Helm }}</ref> the country's leading religious family.<ref name= Hassner/> The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], the 18th century founder of the [[Wahhabi]] form of [[Sunni Islam]] which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: the coming storm|last=Wilson|first=Peter W.|author2=Graham, Douglas|year=1994|isbn=1563243946 |page=16|publisher=M.E. Sharpe }}</ref> The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)<ref name= Long11>{{cite book|title=Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia|last=Long|first=David E.|year=2005|isbn=978-0313320217|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/11 11]|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/11}}</ref> with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"<ref name= IBP>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia King Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Handbook|last=International Business Publications|year=2011|publisher=International Business Publications, USA |isbn=978-0739727409}}</ref> and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.<ref name="meforum.org"/> The pact, which persists to this day,<ref name= IBP/> is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority <ref>{{cite book|title=Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States |last=Nyrop|first=Richard F.|year=2008|isbn=978-1434462107|page=50}}</ref> thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bligh, Alexander|year=1985|title=The Saudi religious elite (Ulama) as participant in the political system of the kingdom|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=17|pages=37–50|doi=10.1017/S0020743800028750|s2cid=154565116 }}</ref> Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulama has diminished in recent decades,<ref name= Mattar>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa: Vol. 1 A–C|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00phil_0|url-access=registration|last=Mattar|first=Philip|year=2004|isbn=978-0028657707|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00phil_0/page/101 101]}}</ref> they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.<ref name= Hassner/>

===Corruption===
Corruption is widespread in Saudi Arabia, most prevalent in the form of [[nepotism]], the use of middlemen, '[[wasta]]', to do business, as well as patronage systems.<ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia Corruption Profile|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/saudi-arabia/show-all.aspx|website=Business Anti-Corruption Profile|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906231821/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/saudi-arabia/show-all.aspx|archive-date=6 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, and over many years, been accused of corruption.<ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Royal Family|last=Reed|first=Jennifer Bond|author2=Brenda, Lange|year=2006|isbn=978-0791092187|page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiroyalfamily00reed_0/page/n17 14]|publisher=Chelsea House |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiroyalfamily00reed_0|url-access=limited}};{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century|last=Cordesman|first=Anthony H.|year=2003|isbn=978-0275980917|pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/47 47,142]|url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/47}};{{cite book|title=Middle Eastern leaders and Islam: A precarious equilibrium|last=Alianak |first=Sonia|year=2007|isbn=978-0820469249|page=67|publisher=Peter Lang }};{{cite book|title=The history of Saudi Arabia|last=Bowen |first=Wayne H.|year=2007|isbn=978-0313340123|pages=15, 108|publisher=Greenwood Press }};{{cite news|title=The corrupt, feudal world of the House of Saud|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=14 May 2003|access-date=21 June 2011|location=London|archive-date=10 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010181738/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html|url-status=live}}; from the 1990s:{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia: Government, society, and the Gulf crisis|last=Abir|first=Mordechai|year=1993|isbn=978-0415093255|page=73|publisher=Routledge }}; {{cite book|title=Security issues in the post-cold war world|last=Davis|first=M. Jane|year=1996|isbn=978-1858983349 |page=81|publisher=Edward Elgar }}; from the 1980s:{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia and its royal family|last=Holden|first=William|year=1982|isbn=0818403268|pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaitsro00powe/page/154 154–156]|publisher=L. Stuart |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaitsro00powe/page/154}};{{cite book|title=The Middle East reader|last=Curtis|first=Michael|year=1986|isbn=978-0887381010|page=235|publisher=Transaction Books }}</ref> In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is [[Etymology of Saudi Arabia|named after it]],<ref name= Kamrava>{{cite book|title=The Modern Middle East: A Political History Since the First World War|last=Kamrava|first=Mehran|year=2011|isbn=978-0520267749|page=67|publisher=University of California Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&q=%22saudi+Arabia%22+name+reflects&pg=PA67|access-date=6 June 2011|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132433/https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&q=%22saudi+Arabia%22+name+reflects&pg=PA67|url-status=live}}</ref> the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.<ref name="FT Saud"/> The corruption has been described as systemic<ref>{{cite book|title=September 11 and the U.S. war: beyond the curtain of smoke|last=Burbach|first=Roger|author2=Clarke, Ben|year=2002|isbn=978-0872864047|page=32|publisher=City Lights Publishers }}</ref> and endemic,<ref>{{cite book|title= Freedom in the Middle East and North Africa: A Freedom in the World Special Edition|last= Freedom House|year=2005|isbn=978-0742537750|page=63|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref> and its existence was acknowledged<ref>{{cite news|title=A Nation Challenged: The Plots; Saudi Arabia Also a Target of Attacks, U.S. Officials Say|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=9 October 2001|access-date=21 June 2011|first1=Lowell|last1=Bergman|archive-date=14 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195125/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and defended<ref>{{cite book|title=The King's Messenger. Prince Bandar bin Sultan and America's Tangled Relationship with Saudi Arabia|last=Ottaway|first=David|year=2008|isbn=978-0802716903|page=[https://archive.org/details/kingsmessengerpr00otta_0/page/162 162]|url=https://archive.org/details/kingsmessengerpr00otta_0/page/162}}</ref> by [[Bandar bin Sultan Al Saud|Prince Bandar bin Sultan]] (a senior member of the royal family)<ref>{{cite news|title=Saudi bribe claims delay £20bn fighter deal|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article1899614.ece|newspaper=The Times|date=7 June 2007|access-date=21 June 2011|location=London|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132440/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/|url-status=dead}}</ref> in an interview in 2001.<ref name= PBS>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html|title=Interview: Bandar bin Sultan|year=2001|publisher=PBS|access-date=20 June 2011|archive-date=31 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331223114/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations,<ref>{{cite book|title=National Security in Saudi Arabia: Threats, Responses, and Challenges|last=Cordesman|first=Anthony H.|author2=Corobaid|author3=Nawaf|year=2005|isbn=978-0275988111|page=[https://archive.org/details/nationalsecurity00cord/page/284 284]|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalsecurity00cord/page/284}}</ref> specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor [[BAE Systems]] had paid Prince Bandar US$2 billion in bribes relating to the [[Al-Yamamah arms deal]].<ref>{{cite news|title=BAE accused of secretly paying £1bn to Saudi prince|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jun/07/bae1|newspaper=The Guardian|date=7 June 2007|access-date=21 June 2011|location=London|first1=David|last1=Leigh|first2=Rob|last2=Evans|archive-date=27 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727005051/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jun/07/bae1|url-status=live}}; {{cite news|title=BAE Systems sued over alleged Saudi bribes|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law/article2498504.ece|newspaper=The Times|date=20 September 2007|access-date=21 June 2011|location=London|archive-date=7 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807192427/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law/article2498504.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref> Prince Bandar denied the allegations.<ref>{{cite news|title=Prince Bandar denies BAE bribery claims|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/engineering/article1914426.ece|newspaper=The Times|date=11 June 2007|access-date=9 July 2011|location=London|archive-date=7 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807192409/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/engineering/article1914426.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref> Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in [[plea bargain]] agreements with the company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8501916.stm|title=Lord Goldsmith defends BAE Systems plea deal|date=6 February 2010|publisher=BBC|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=18 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718064140/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8501916.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Transparency International]] in its annual [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.4 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "very clean").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2010|publisher=Transparency International|date=15 December 2010|access-date=28 April 2011|archive-date=25 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425163935/http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results|url-status=dead}}</ref>

During the [[2017–2019 Saudi Arabian purge|2017 Saudi Arabian anti-corruption arrests]] on 5 November, 11 princes and dozens of former ministers were detained in a new anti-corruption probe in Saudi Arabia. Among those detained include prominent billionaire investor Prince [[Al-Waleed bin Talal]], National Guard Minister Miteb bin Abdullah and Economy and Planning Minister Adel Fakeih. The official line is that the purge was in response to corrupt practices by the accused and that the anti-corruption committee has the right to issue arrest warrants, impose travel restrictions, and freeze bank accounts. It is also empowered to investigate financials and freeze assets until cases are decided on. The Royal proclamation further said, "due to the propensity of some people for abuse, putting their interest above public interest, and stealing public funds."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theindependent.in/Saudi-Arabia-arrests-princes-crown-prince-Mohammed-bin-Salman-consolidates-powers/|title=Saudi Arabia arrests Princes, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman consolidates powers|date=5 November 2017 |publisher=theindependent.in|access-date=1 April 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308011648/https://theindependent.in/Saudi-Arabia-arrests-princes-crown-prince-Mohammed-bin-Salman-consolidates-powers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, Saudi Arabian journalist [[Jamal Khashoggi]] was [[Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi|kidnapped and killed]] after he criticized the Saudi government.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/business/media/jamal-khashoggi-person-of-the-year-time.html | title=Time Names Person of the Year for 2018: Jamal Khashoggi and Other Journalists | newspaper=The New York Times | date=11 December 2018 | last1=Haag | first1=Matthew | last2=Grynbaum | first2=Michael M. | access-date=10 July 2022 | archive-date=11 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211214442/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/business/media/jamal-khashoggi-person-of-the-year-time.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

On 6 March 2020, the [[Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia,]] [[Mohammed bin Salman]] detained three senior royal members, including [[King Salman]]'s brother, [[Ahmed bin Abdulaziz Al Saud|Prince Ahmed bin Abdulaziz]], the former crown prince, [[Muhammad bin Nayef|Muhammed bin Nayef]], and his younger brother, to eliminate the risk of potential successors to the throne.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/world/MiddleEast/Saudi-royal-arrest.html|title=Saudi Prince Details Senior Members of Royal Family|access-date=6 March 2020|website=The New York Times|archive-date=6 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306220027/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/world/middleeast/saudi-royal-arrest.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 15 March 2020, Saudi Arabia conducted another mass-detention campaign and arrested 298 government employees out of the 674 people investigated on suspicion of corruption. The detainees included current and retired military officers, security officers under the [[Ministry of Interior (Saudi Arabia)|Interior Ministry]], health officials, and judges. The mass detention raised human rights concerns, where the [[Human Rights Watch]] called for the revelation of the legal and evidentiary basis for each person's detention.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/17/saudi-arabia-new-mass-corruption-arrests|title=Saudi Arabia: New Mass Corruption Arrests|access-date=17 March 2020|website=Human Rights Watch|date=17 March 2020|archive-date=28 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328032625/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/17/saudi-arabia-new-mass-corruption-arrests|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 6 August 2020, former top Saudi Intelligence official [[Saad bin Khalid Al Jabry|Saad AlJabri]], who self-exiled in [[Canada]], filed a lawsuit against [[Saudi Arabia]]'s Crown Prince, [[Mohammed bin Salman]], and other high-ranking officials. The lawsuit was filed at the [[Washington, D.C.]] court under the [[Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991|Torture Victim Protection Act]], accusing the crown prince of sending a hit squad, dubbed "[[Tiger Squad]]", in October 2018 for his [[extrajudicial killing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/09/saudi-ex-spy-suing-crown-prince-faces-fresh-death-threat-in-canada-report|title=Saudi ex-spy suing crown prince faces fresh death threat in Canada – report|access-date=9 August 2020|website=The Guardian|date=9 August 2020|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809020632/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/09/saudi-ex-spy-suing-crown-prince-faces-fresh-death-threat-in-canada-report|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2021, more than 240 people were arrested in Saudi Arabia for corruption. Employees from the ministries of interior, health, municipal and rural affairs and housing, education, and human resources and social development, customs and the postal story were arrested.<ref>{{Cite web|editor-last=Salama|editor-first=Samir|title=Saudi Arabia arrests 241 in new corruption crackdown|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-arrests-241-in-new-corruption-crackdown-1.77838687|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Gulf News|date=15 March 2021 |language=en|archive-date=15 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315205946/https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-arrests-241-in-new-corruption-crackdown-1.77838687|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Reform===
Since the [[9/11]] attacks in 2001, there has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual ''National Dialogue Forum'' was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the [[Allegiance Council]] was created to regulate the succession.<ref name= Al-Rasheed242>{{cite book|title=A History of Saudi Arabia|last=Al Rasheed |first=M. |author-link=Madawi al-Rasheed|year=2010|isbn=978-0521747547|pages=180, 242–243, 248, 257–258}}</ref> In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi king speeds reforms|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658.html#axzz1Q0pylGRj |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658.html#axzz1Q0pylGRj |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Financial Times|date=15 February 2009|access-date=22 June 2011}};{{cite news |title=Prince Naif appointed deputy Saudi PM|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html#axzz1Q0pylGRj |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html#axzz1Q0pylGRj |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Financial Times|date=27 March 2009|access-date=22 June 2011}}</ref> However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic,<ref>{{cite news|title=Reform in Saudi Arabia: At a snail's pace|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17149062?story_id=17149062&fsrc=rss|newspaper=The Economist|date=30 September 2010|access-date=22 June 2011|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014041446/http://www.economist.com/node/17149062?story_id=17149062&fsrc=rss|url-status=live}}</ref> and the royal family is reportedly divided on the speed and direction of reform.<ref name=Kostiner236>{{cite book|title=Conflict and cooperation in the Gulf region|url=https://archive.org/details/conflictcooperat00kost|url-access=limited|last=Kostiner |first=Joseph|year=2009|isbn=978-3531162058|page=[https://archive.org/details/conflictcooperat00kost/page/n233 236]}}</ref>

In 2011, Abdullah announced that women will be able to be nominated to the [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Shura Council]].<ref name="oman_observer_electionday">{{cite news |title=Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday |date=30 September 2011 |work=[[Oman Observer]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050656/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>