Editing Politics of Lebanon (section)

==Overview==
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The [[Maronite]] [[Catholic]]s and the [[Druze]] founded modern [[Lebanon]] in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "[[Maronite-Druze dualism]]" in [[Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon| first=Marius|last=Deeb|year= 2013| isbn= 9780817916664|publisher=Hoover Press|quote= the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.}}</ref> Since the emergence of the post-1943 state and after the destruction of the Ottoman [[Caliphate]], national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders.

The 1943 [[National Pact]], an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, [[Reserved political positions|allocated]] political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of [[Christianity in Lebanon|Christians]] to [[Islam in Lebanon|Muslims]]. In 1990, the ratio changed to half and half. Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis.

The pact by custom allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling "troika" distributed as follows: the [[President of Lebanon|president]], a [[Maronite Christianity in Lebanon|Maronite Christian]]; the [[List of Speakers of the Parliament of Lebanon|speaker]] of the Parliament, a [[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shi'a Muslim]]; and the [[Prime Minister of Lebanon|prime minister]], a [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni Muslim]].

Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the centre of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favoured by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 [[Taif Agreement]], perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.

Although moderated somewhat under Ta'if, the Constitution gives the president a strong and influential position. The president has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the Parliament, form the government to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties.

The Parliament is elected by adult suffrage based on a system of majority or "winner-take-all" for the various confessional groups. The [[Age of majority|majority]] age for voting in elections is 21.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/469cda4dc.html|title=Refworld {{!}} Liban : information sur l'âge de la majorité, en particulier chez les femmes; droits de garde du père sur les enfants de sexe féminin|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|website=Refworld|language=en|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> There has been a recent effort to switch to proportional representation which many argue will provide a more accurate assessment of the size of political groups and allow minorities to be heard. Most deputies do not represent political parties as they are known in the West, and rarely form Western-style groups in the assembly. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities.

The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate.

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the [[Napoleonic Code]]. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels—courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics. Powerful families play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections. A lively panoply [[List of political parties in Lebanon|of domestic political parties]], some even predating independence, exists. The largest parties are all religiously aligned.

The [[Free Patriotic Movement (Lebanon)|Free Patriotic Movement]], The [[Kataeb Party (Lebanon)|Kataeb Party]], also known as the Phalange Party, the [[Lebanese National Bloc|National Bloc]], [[National Liberal Party (Lebanon)|National Liberal Party]], [[Lebanese Forces]] and the [[Guardians of the Cedars]] (now outlawed) each have their own base among Christians.

[[Amal Movement|Amal]] and [[Hezbollah]] are the main rivals for the organized [[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shi'a]] vote. The PSP ([[Progressive Socialist Party]]) is the leading [[Druze in Lebanon|Druze]] party. Shi'a and Druze parties command fierce loyalty to their respective leaderships. There is more factional infighting among many of the Christian parties.

Sunni parties have not been the standard vehicle for launching political candidates, and tend to focus across Lebanon's borders on issues that are important to the community at large. Lebanon's [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni]] parties include [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]], [[Future Movement]], [[Independent Nasserist Organization]] (INO), the [[Islamic Unification Movement|Al-Tawhid]], and [[Al-Ahbash|Ahbash]].

Besides the traditional confessional parties above, new secular parties have emerged, amongst which [[Sabaa (Lebanon)|Sabaa]] and the [[Party of Lebanon]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.executive-magazine.com/cover-story/the-anti-establishment|title=The anti-establishment - Executive Magazine|date=13 September 2017|access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref> representing a new trend in Lebanese politics towards secularism and a truly democratic society. In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties ([[Ba'ath]] parties, [[socialist]] and [[communist]] parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout [[Lebanese Civil War|the period of civil war]].

There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity.

In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. Events over the last decade and long-term demographic trends have upset the delicate [[Islam in Lebanon|Muslim]]–[[Christianity in Lebanon|Christian]]–[[Druze in Lebanon|Druze]] balance and resulted in greater segregation across the social spectrum. Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding. All factions have called for a reform of the political system.

Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation. Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The reforms of the Ta'if agreement moved in this direction but have not been fully realized.

[[Palestinians in Lebanon|Palestinian refugees]], predominantly [[Sunni Muslim]]s, whose numbers are estimated at between 160,000 and 225,000, are not active on the domestic political scene.

In September 2004, the Lebanese Parliament voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to extend President [[Émile Lahoud]]'s six-year term, which was about to expire, by another three years. The move was supported by Syria, which maintained a large military presence in Lebanon.

Former prime minister [[Rafic Hariri]] was assassinated in February 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wamu.org/programs/dr/05/02/21.php|title=WAMU and Farid Abboud discuss Hariri's assassination|access-date=20 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913001458/http://wamu.org/programs/dr/05/02/21.php|archive-date=13 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Following the withdrawal of [[Military of Syria|Syrian troops]] in April 2005, Lebanon [[2005 Lebanese general election|held parliamentary elections]] in four rounds, from 29 May to 19 June. The elections, the first for 33 years without the presence of Syrian military forces, were won by the Quadripartite alliance, which was part the [[Rafik Hariri Martyr List]], a coalition of several parties and organizations newly opposed to Syrian domination of Lebanese politics.

In January 2015, the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] released a report stating that Lebanon ranked second in the [[Middle East]] and 98th out of 167 countries worldwide on the 2014 [[Democracy Index]]. The index ranks countries according to election processes, pluralism, government functions, political participation, political cultures and fundamental freedoms.

From October 2019, there have been mass protests against the government, with participation ranging from hundreds of thousands to estimates as high as two million citizens, that mobilized to demand political and economic reform.<ref name=":1" /> The October 2019 uprising in Lebanon reignited debate over the country’s political-sectarian system, institutionalized during the French Mandate period, such as through the 1943 National Pact.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Practicing sectarianism: archival and ethnographic interventions on Lebanon |date=2023 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-3386-5 |editor-last=Deeb |editor-first=Lara |location=Stanford, California |editor-last2=Nalbantian |editor-first2=Tsolin |editor-last3=Sbaiti |editor-first3=Nadya}}</ref> The protests, marked by calls to dismantle this system, reflected decades of growing intersectional activism,<ref name=":0" /> in which feminist groups played a key role.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Mikdashi |first=Maya |title=Sextarianism: sovereignty, secularism, and the state in Lebanon |date=2022 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-2887-8 |location=Stanford, California}}</ref> Although protesters pursued multiple goals, one of the most unifying demands, that transcended sectarian and ideological divides, was the dismantling of entrenched corruption perpetrated by the political elite and their associates, which profit from cronyism prevalent in the country.<ref name=":1" /> Demonstrators called for a more equitable and accountable government,<ref name=":0" /> economic reforms to address the country’s deepening financial crisis, and debates on citizenship, census bureaucracy, and personal status laws.<ref name=":1" /> However, the protests faced harsh repression from the Lebanese security forces, including mass arrests, the use of tear gas, and the shooting of demonstrators, along with other repressive measures.<ref name=":1" /> In August 2020, [[2020 Beirut explosion|a large explosion in Beirut]] killed at least 204 people and caused at least US$3 billion in property damage. Following the explosion and protests against the government, the prime minister and his cabinet resigned.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53720383|title=Beirut explosion: Lebanon's government 'to resign' as death toll rises|work=BBC News|date=10 August 2020}}</ref>

In May 2022, Lebanon [[2022 Lebanese general election|held its first election]] since a painful economic crisis dragged it to the brink of becoming a [[failed state]]. Lebanon's crisis has been so severe that more than 80 percent of the population is now considered poor by the [[United Nations]]. In the election, the Iran-backed Shia Muslim [[Hezbollah]] movement and its allies lost their parliamentary majority. Hezbollah did not lose any of its seats, but its allies lost seats.<ref name="www.aljazeera.com">{{cite news |last1=Chehayeb |first1=Kareem |title=After elections in Lebanon, does political change stand a chance? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/19/what-stands-next-for-lebanon-after-key-elections |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera.com">{{cite news |last1=Chehayeb |first1=Kareem |title=Hezbollah allies projected to suffer losses in Lebanon elections |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/16/hezbollah-allies-projected-to-lose-seats-lebanese-parliamentary-elections |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Hariri's absence leaves Sunni voter">{{cite news |last1=Chehayeb |first1=Kareem |title=Hariri's absence leaves Sunni voters unsure ahead of Lebanon poll |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/4/lebanon-sunni-vote |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

Hezbollah’s ally, President [[Michel Aoun|Michel Aoun's]] [[Free Patriotic Movement]], was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election. A rival Christian party, led by [[Samir Geagea]], with close ties to Saudi Arabia, the [[Lebanese Forces]] (LF), made gains. The Sunni [[Future Movement]], led by former prime minister [[Saad Hariri]], did not participate in the election, leaving a political vacuum for other Sunni politicians to fill.<ref name="www.aljazeera.com"/><ref name="aljazeera.com"/><ref name="Hariri's absence leaves Sunni voter"/> In October 2024, leader of the Free Patriotic Movement, [[Gebran Bassil]], announced that the party was no longer in alliance with [[Hezbollah]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bassil Disavows Hezbollah, Blames it for Israeli Assault on Lebanon |url=https://english.aawsat.com/arab-world/5073914-bassil-disavows-hezbollah-blames-it-israeli-assault-lebanon |work=english.aawsat.com |language=en}}</ref>

In November 2024, a [[2024 Israel–Lebanon ceasefire agreement|ceasefire deal]] was signed between Israel and the Lebanese armed group Hezbollah to end 13 months of conflict. According to the agreement, Hezbollah was given 60 days to end its armed presence in southern Lebanon and Israeli forces were obliged to withdraw from the area over the same period.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lebanon ceasefire: What we know about Israel-Hezbollah deal |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2d3gj9ewxo |work=www.bbc.com |date=27 November 2024}}</ref> [[Fall of the Assad regime|The fall of Assad’s Baathist regime]] in Syria was  another blow to its Lebanese ally, Hezbollah, which was alredy weakened because of Israeli military actions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rebeiz |first1=Mireille |title=Assad's fall in Syria will further weaken Hezbollah and curtails Tehran's 'Iranization' of region |url=https://theconversation.com/assads-fall-in-syria-will-further-weaken-hezbollah-and-curtails-tehrans-iranization-of-region-245606 |website=The Conversation |date=11 December 2024}}</ref> The Syrian regime change in December 2024 was said to start a new chapter in Lebanese politics.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Assad's Fall Means for Lebanon |url=https://www.usip.org/publications/2024/12/what-assads-fall-means-lebanon |website=United States Institute of Peace |language=en}}{{dead link|date=April 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In January 2025, [[Joseph Aoun]], the Lebanese army commander, was elected Lebanese 14th [[President of Lebanon|president]] after a two-year vacancy.<ref>{{cite news |author=Al Jazeera Staff |title=Who is Joseph Aoun, the new president of Lebanon? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/1/9/who-is-joseph-aoun-the-new-president-of-lebanon |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> In February 2025, Prime Minister [[Nawaf Salam]], former president of the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), formed a new government of 24 ministers after two-year caretaker cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lebanon names new government after two-year caretaker cabinet |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/2/8/lebanon-names-new-government-after-two-year-caretaker-cabinet |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> On 26 February 2025,  Lebanon's government of  Nawaf Salam won a confidence vote in parliament.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lebanon's government wins confidence vote in Parliament |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2025/02/26/lebanon-s-government-wins-confidence-vote-in-parliament |work=Al Arabiya English |date=26 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref>