Editing Politics of Djibouti (section)

==History==
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a [[French Somaliland overseas territory referendum, 1958|referendum]] was held in Djibouti to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined "yes" vote by the sizeable [[Afar people|Afar]] ethnic group and resident Europeans.<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pyWpKKlukLcC&pg=PA115 ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States''], (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p. 115 {{ISBN|0472068989}}</ref> There was also widespread [[vote rigging]], with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 360 {{ISBN|1579582451}}.</ref> The majority of those who had voted "no" were [[Somali people|Somalis]] who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<ref name=Barrington2006/>
[[File:Mahmoud Harbi.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Former Vice President of the Government Council, [[Mahmoud Harbi]].]]
In 1967, a [[French Somaliland independence referendum, 1967|second plebiscite]] was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual union with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France.<ref name="Apcoatf">''A Political Chronology of Africa'', (Taylor & Francis), p.132.</ref> However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities.<ref name="Aufsnas">American Universities Field Staff, ''Northeast Africa series'', Volume 15, Issue 1, (American Universities Field Staff.: 1968), p. 3.</ref> Shortly after the referendum was held, the former ''Côte française des Somalis'' (French Somaliland) was renamed to ''Territoire français des Afars et des Issas''.<ref name="Tioipeami">Alvin J. Cottrell, Robert Michael Burrell, Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies, ''The Indian Ocean: its political, economic, and military importance'', (Praeger: 1972), p. 166.</ref>

In 1977, a [[Afars and Issas independence referendum, 1977|third referendum]] took place. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence.<ref name="Nwvol">''Newsweek'', Volume 81, (Newsweek: 1973), p. 254.</ref><ref>[http://africanelections.tripod.com/dj.html Elections in Djibouti] African Elections Database</ref>

[[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a Somali politician who had campaigned for a "yes" vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999).<ref name=Barrington2006/> He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987 and to a third 6-year term in May 1993 multiparty elections. The electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992.<ref name="English_constitution"/> Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect.
[[File:Ismail Omar Guelleh 2010.jpg|thumb|right|160px|President of Djibouti [[Ismaïl Omar Guelleh]].]]
In early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties. By the time of the national assembly elections in December 1992, only three had qualified. They are the ''Rassemblement Populaire Pour le Progres'' ([[People's Rally for Progress]]) (RPP) which was the only legal party from 1981 until 1992, the ''Parti du Renouveau Démocratique'' (The [[Party for Democratic Renewal]]) (PRD), and the ''Parti National Démocratique'' ([[National Democratic Party (Djibouti)|National Democratic Party]]) (PND). Only the RPP and the PRD contested the national assembly elections, and the PND withdrew, claiming that there were too many unanswered questions on the conduct of the elections and too many opportunities for government fraud. The RPP won all 65 seats in the national assembly, with a turnout of less than 50% of the electorate.

In 1999, President Aptidon's chief of staff, head of security, and key adviser for over 20 years, [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] was elected to the Presidency as the RPP candidate.<ref name=IRIN>{{cite web |title=DJIBOUTI: Guelleh sworn in for second presidential term |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=47007 |publisher=IRIN Africa |date=May 9, 2005 |access-date=March 20, 2013 }}</ref> He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate [[Moussa Ahmed Idriss]], of the [[Unified Djiboutian Opposition]] (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group [[election boycott|boycotted the election]]. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election "irregularities" and the assertion that "foreigners" had voted in various sub-prefectures of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on May 8, 1999, with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognised section of the Afar-led FRUD.
[[File:Dileita Mohamed Dileita detail 090114-F-3682S-269.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Dileita Mohamed Dileita]], former Prime Minister of Djibouti, vice-president of the [[People's Rally for Progress]] (RPP), and President of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP).]]
Currently, political power is shared by a Somali Issa president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars.

The government is dominated by the Somali Issa Mamasen, who enjoy the support of the [[Somali clan]]s, especially the [[Isaaq]] (the clan of the current president's wife) and the [[Gadabuursi]] Dir (who are the second most prominent Somali clan in Djibouti politics). In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the [[Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy]] (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were subsequently made cabinet members,<ref name=CIA-people>{{cite web|title=People and Society|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/djibouti/|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=February 26, 2013|date=February 5, 2013}}</ref> and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government. On 12 May 2001, President [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The treaty successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris, with [[Ahmed Dini Ahmed]] representing the FRUD.

On 8 April 2005, President Guelleh was sworn in for his second six-year term after a [[Djiboutian presidential election, 2005|one-man election]]. He took 100% of the votes in a 78.9% turnout.<ref name=IRIN />

In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a [[2011 Djiboutian protests|series of protests]] against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger [[Arab Spring]] demonstrations. Guelleh was [[Djiboutian presidential election, 2011|re-elected]] to a third term later that year, with 80.63% of the vote in a 75% turnout.<ref>{{cite web|title=Elections in Djibouti|url=http://africanelections.tripod.com/dj.html|publisher=African Elections Database|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="Meodvpe">{{cite news|title=Djibouti validates presidential election|url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=45530|access-date=30 March 2013|newspaper=Middle East Online|date=13 April 2011}}</ref> Although opposition groups boycotted the ballot over changes to the constitution permitting Guelleh to run again for office,<ref name="Meodvpe"/> international observers generally described the election as free and fair.<ref name="Spabcdpohr">{{cite news|title=Sudan: President Al-Bashir Congratulates Djibouti President On His Re-Election|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201104211241.html|access-date=30 March 2013|newspaper=Sudan News Agency|date=20 April 2011}}</ref>

On 31 March 2013, Guelleh replaced long-serving Prime Minister [[Dilleita Mohamed Dilleita]] with former president of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) [[Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed]].<ref name="Makmgcdlenpmd">{{cite web|title=M. Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed, grand commis de l'Etat et nouveau Premier ministre djiboutien|url=http://www.adjib.dj/actunat/pm.php|publisher=Adjib|access-date=1 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101111102/http://www.adjib.dj/actunat/pm.php|archive-date=1 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In April 2021, [[Ismaïl Omar Guelleh|Ismael Guelleh]], the second [[President of Djibouti]] since independence from France in 1977, was [[2021 Djiboutian presidential election|re-elected]] for his fifth term.<ref>{{cite news |title=Djibouti President Guelleh wins election with 98%, provisional results |url=https://www.africanews.com/2021/04/10/djibouti-president-guelleh-wins-election-with-98-provisional-results/ |work=Africanews |date=n.d.}}</ref>
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