Editing Planetarium (section)

==History==
{{for|specific dates and events in the historical influences on and development of planetaria|timeline of planetariums}}{{Citations needed|section|date=October 2022}}

===Early===
[[File:Archimedes' planetarium.jpg|thumb|A reconstruction of [[Archimedes]]' planetarium at the [[Museum of Ancient Greek Technology|Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology]], in [[Athens]], [[Greece]].]]
The [[Hellenistic period|ancient Greek]] [[polymath]] [[Archimedes]] is attributed with creating a primitive planetarium device that could predict the movements of the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]] and the planets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchant |first=Jo |date=2015-10-01 |title=Archimedes’ legendary sphere brought to life |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2015.18431 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=526 |issue=7571 |pages=19–19 |doi=10.1038/nature.2015.18431 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vullo |first=Vincenzo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g67QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |title=Gears Volume 3: A Concise History |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-40163-4 |volume=III |location=Cham |pages=42}}</ref> The discovery of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] proved that such devices already existed during [[Ancient history|antiquity]], though likely after Archimedes' lifetime. [[Campanus of Novara]] described a planetary [[equatorium]] in his ''Theorica Planetarum'', and included instructions on how to build one. The [[Globe of Gottorf]] built around 1650 had constellations painted on the inside.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marche |first=Jordan |title=Theaters of Time and Space: American Planetaria, 1930-1970 |date=2005 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=Rutgers |page=10 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780813537665?auth=0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304212323/http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780813537665?auth=0 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |isbn=9780813537665 |access-date=2014-02-24}}</ref> These devices would today usually be referred to as [[Orrery|orreries]] (named for the [[Earl of Orrery]]). In fact, many planetariums today have projection orreries, which project onto the dome the [[Solar System]] (including the [[Sun]] and planets up to [[Saturn]]) in their regular [[orbit]]al paths.

In 1229, following the conclusion of the [[Fifth Crusade]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II of Hohenstaufen]] brought back a tent with scattered holes representing [[star]]s or [[planet]]s. The device was operated internally with a spinnable table that rotated the tent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Planetariums |url=https://commons.bcit.ca/planetarium/history-of-planetariums/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=commons.bcit.ca}}</ref>

The small size of typical 18th century orreries limited their impact, and towards the end of that century a number of educators attempted to create a larger sized version. The efforts of [[Adam Walker (inventor)|Adam Walker]] (1730–1821) and his sons are noteworthy in their attempts to fuse theatrical illusions with education. Walker's [[Eidouranion]] was the heart of his public lectures or theatrical presentations. Walker's son describes this "Elaborate Machine" as "twenty feet high, and twenty-seven in diameter: it stands vertically before the spectators, and its globes are so large, that they are distinctly seen in the most distant parts of the Theatre. Every Planet and Satellite seems suspended in space, without any support; performing their annual and diurnal revolutions without any apparent cause". Other lecturers promoted their own devices: R E Lloyd advertised his Dioastrodoxon, or Grand Transparent Orrery, and by 1825 William Kitchener was offering his Ouranologia, which was {{convert|42|ft|m}} in diameter. These devices most probably sacrificed astronomical accuracy for crowd-pleasing spectacle and sensational and awe-provoking imagery.

The [[Eise Eisinga Planetarium|oldest still-working planetarium]] can be found in the [[Friesland|Frisian]] city of [[Franeker]]. It was built by [[Eise Eisinga]] (1744–1828) in the living room of his house. It took Eisinga seven years to build his planetarium, which was completed in 1781.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Eise Eisinga Planetarium |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5629/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
[[File:25 jarig bestaan van het Zeiss Planetarium Haagse Crt Dr J J Raimond jr, Bestanddeelnr 910-1522.jpg|thumb|The world's first planetarium projector, Zeiss Mark I, 1923]]

In 1905 [[Oskar von Miller]] (1855–1934) of the ''[[Deutsches Museum]]'' in [[Munich, Germany|Munich]] commissioned updated versions of a geared orrery and planetarium from M Sendtner, and later worked with Franz Meyer, chief engineer at the Carl [[Carl Zeiss AG|Zeiss]] optical works in [[Jena]], on the largest mechanical planetarium ever constructed, capable of displaying both [[heliocentric]] and [[geocentric]] motion. This was displayed at the Deutsches Museum in 1924, construction work having been interrupted by the war. The planets travelled along overhead rails, powered by electric motors: the orbit of Saturn was 11.25 m in diameter. 180 stars were projected onto the wall by electric bulbs.

While this was being constructed, von Miller was also working at the Zeiss factory with German astronomer [[Max Wolf]], director of the [[Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl]] observatory of the [[University of Heidelberg]], on a new and novel design, inspired by [[Wallace W. Atwood]]'s work at the [[Chicago Academy of Sciences]] and by the ideas of [[Walther Bauersfeld]] and [[Rudolf Straubel]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Engber|first=Daniel|title=Under the Dome: The tragic, untold story of the world's first planetarium|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/02/planetarium_history_nazis_persecuted_inventor_rudolf_straubel_of_zeiss.html|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=24 February 2014 |publisher=[[The Slate Group]]|access-date=24 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224122914/http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/02/planetarium_history_nazis_persecuted_inventor_rudolf_straubel_of_zeiss.html|archive-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> at [[Carl Zeiss AG|Zeiss]]. The result was a planetarium design which would generate all the necessary movements of the stars and planets inside the optical projector, and would be mounted centrally in a room, projecting images onto the white surface of a hemisphere. In August 1923, the first (Model I) [[Zeiss-Planetarium Jena|Zeiss planetarium]] projected images of the night sky onto the white plaster lining of a 16 m hemispherical concrete dome, erected on the roof of the Zeiss works. The first official public showing was at the Deutsches Museum in Munich on October 21, 1923.<ref name="twothousand">{{Cite news |last = Chartrand |first = Mark |date = September 1973 |title = A Fifty Year Anniversary of a Two Thousand Year Dream (The History of the Planetarium) |periodical = The Planetarian |publisher = International Planetarium Society |volume = 2 |issue = 3 |url = http://www.ips-planetarium.org/planetarian/articles/twothousandyr_dream.html |issn = 0090-3213 |access-date = 2009-02-26 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090420022543/http://www.ips-planetarium.org/planetarian/articles/twothousandyr_dream.html |archive-date = 2009-04-20 }}</ref><ref name=ieee>{{cite web |last1=Marsh |first1=Allison |title=A Brief History of the World's First Planetarium - IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/planetarium-history |website=[[IEEE]] |access-date=23 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

Zeiss Planetarium became popular, and attracted a lot of attention. Next Zeiss planetariums were opened in Rome (1928, in [[Aula Ottagona]], part of the [[Baths of Diocletian]]), Chicago (1930), Osaka (1937, in  the [[Osaka City Electricity Science Museum]]).<ref name=ieee/>

===After World War II===
[[File:Planetario 2.jpg|alt=|thumb|Opened in 1955, the [[Surveyor Germán Barbato Municipal Planetarium]] in [[Montevideo]], [[Uruguay]], is the oldest planetarium in Latin America and the southern hemisphere.]]
When Germany was divided into East and West Germany after the war, the Zeiss firm was also split.  Part remained in its traditional headquarters at [[Jena]], in [[East Germany]], and part migrated to [[West Germany]]. The designer of the first planetariums for Zeiss, [[Walther Bauersfeld]], also migrated to West Germany with the other members of the Zeiss management team. There he remained on the Zeiss West management team until his death in 1959.

The West German firm resumed making large planetariums in 1954, and the East German firm started making small planetariums a few years later. Meanwhile, the lack of planetarium manufacturers had led to several attempts at construction of unique models, such as one built by the [[California Academy of Sciences]] in [[Golden Gate Park]], [[San Francisco]], which operated 1952–2003.  The Korkosz brothers built a large projector for the [[Boston Museum of Science]], which was unique in being the first (and for a very long time only) planetarium to project the planet [[Uranus]]. Most planetariums ignore Uranus as being at best marginally visible to the naked eye.

A great boost to the popularity of the planetarium worldwide was provided by the [[Space Race]] of the 1950s and 60s when fears that the United States might miss out on the opportunities of the new frontier in space stimulated a massive program to install over 1,200 planetariums in U.S. high schools.

[[File:Spitz Star Projector.jpg|thumb|left|Early Spitz star projector]]
[[Armand Spitz]] recognized that there was a viable market for small inexpensive planetaria. His first model, the Spitz A, was designed to project stars from a [[dodecahedron]], thus reducing machining expenses in creating a globe.<ref name="ley196502">{{Cite magazine
 |last=Ley
 |first=Willy
 |date=February 1965
 |title=Forerunners of the Planetarium
 |department=For Your Information
 |url=https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy_v23n02_1964-12#page/n93/mode/2up
 |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction
 |pages=87–98
}}</ref> Planets were not mechanized, but could be shifted by hand.  Several models followed with various upgraded capabilities, until the A3P, which projected well over a thousand stars, had motorized motions for latitude change, daily motion, and annual motion for Sun, Moon (including phases), and planets. This model was installed in hundreds of high schools, colleges, and even small museums from 1964 to the 1980s.

[[File:Goto-E5.jpg|thumb|right|A Goto E-5 projector.]]
[[Japan]] entered the planetarium manufacturing business in the 1960s, with Goto and [[Minolta]] both successfully marketing a number of different models. Goto was particularly successful when the Japanese Ministry of Education put one of their smallest models, the E-3 or E-5 (the numbers refer to the metric diameter of the dome) in every [[elementary school]] in Japan.

Phillip Stern, as former lecturer at [[New York City]]'s [[Hayden Planetarium]], had the idea of creating a small planetarium which could be programmed.  His Apollo model was introduced in 1967 with a plastic program board, recorded lecture, and film strip. Unable to pay for this himself, Stern became the head of the planetarium division of [[Viewlex]], a mid-size audio-visual firm on [[Long Island]]. About thirty canned programs were created for various grade levels and the public, while operators could create their own or run the planetarium live.  Purchasers of the Apollo were given their choice of two canned shows, and could purchase more.  A few hundred were sold, but in the late 1970s Viewlex went bankrupt for reasons unrelated to the planetarium business.

During the 1970s, the [[OmniMax]] [[Film|movie]] system (now known as IMAX Dome) was conceived to operate on planetarium screens. More recently, some planetariums have re-branded themselves as ''dome theaters'', with broader offerings including wide-screen or "wraparound" films, [[fulldome|fulldome video]], and laser shows that combine music with laser-drawn patterns.

[[Learning Technologies Inc.]] in [[Massachusetts]] offered the first easily portable planetarium in 1977. Philip Sadler designed this patented system which projected stars, [[constellation]] figures from many [[mythologies]], celestial coordinate systems, and much else, from removable cylinders (Viewlex and others followed with their own portable versions).

When [[German reunification|Germany reunified]] in 1989, the two Zeiss firms did likewise, and expanded their offerings to cover many different size domes.

===Computerized planetaria===
In 1983, [[Evans & Sutherland]] installed the first [[Digital data|digital]] planetarium projector displaying computer graphics ([[Old Hansen Planetarium|Hansen planetarium]], Salt Lake City, Utah)&mdash;the [[Digistar|Digistar I]] projector used a [[vector graphics]] system to display starfields as well as [[line art]]. This gives the operator great flexibility in showing not only the modern night sky as visible from [[Earth]], but as visible from points far distant in space and time. The newest generations of planetarium projectors, beginning with [[Digistar 3]], offer [[fulldome|fulldome video]] technology. This allows for the projection of any image.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}