Editing Piri Reis (section)

== Biography ==
===Early life and piracy===
Little is known about Piri Reis' background and early life.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p266">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=266}}.</ref> He was likely born around 1470 in [[Gelibolu]] on the [[Dardanelles]].<ref name="Bostan-2014">{{harvnb|Bostan|2014}}.</ref> At the time, Gelibolu was a major naval base for the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Soucek-1992-p266"/> He was born Muhiddin Piri; ''[[Reis (military rank)|Reis]]'' was a military rank equivalent to captain.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=6}}; |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=5}}; |{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Reis |encyclopedia=Tureng Multilingual Dictionary |url=https://tureng.com/en/turkish-english/reis}} }}</ref> His uncle was [[Kemal Reis]].<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p5">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=5}}.</ref> Little is known about his parents.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p320">{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=320}}.</ref> Piri Reis gives his father's name as Hacı Mehmed.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p5" /> It is not clear from historical records whether Piri was the son of Kemal Reis' brother or sister.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p320" /> Kemal Reis had a brother-in-law from [[Nafpaktos]] who was arrested and tortured in Venice for alleged spying during the [[Ottoman–Venetian wars]]. He was possibly Piri Reis' father.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=321}}.</ref>

By age 12, he began sailing with his uncle, the notable corsair Kemal Reis.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p5" /><ref>{{harvnb|Khair|2006|p=127}}.</ref> Corsairs are a type of [[piracy|pirate]] acting with the approval of a [[sovereign state]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsair |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/corsair |website=Cambridge Dictionary}}</ref> Led by Kemal Reis, [[Barbary pirates]] threatened European maritime traffic.<ref>{{harvnb|Pryor|1988|p=193}}.</ref> Piri Reis wrote of his early years, "We sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly."<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=6}}.</ref> He sailed with his uncle on raids, mainly on the coasts of Italy and Spain.<ref name="Bostan-2014" /> By 1490, they were operating out of [[Béjaïa]], [[Algeria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=91}}.</ref> As a corsair, Piri Reis captured many ships, a fortress near [[Mallorca]], and [[Pianosa]] near Corsica.<ref name="Bostan-2014" /> During the [[Granada War]], Piri Reis transported Muslims and Jews from [[Spain]] to North Africa.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6" /> During the winters, he and his uncle took shelter in favorable harbors on the [[Barbary Coast]].<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=9}}.</ref>

===Naval career and cartography===
[[File:Venice by Piri Reis.jpg|alt=map of Venetian lagoon with major rivers, canals, and fortifications|thumb|[[Venice]] as depicted in the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'']]

Piri Reis sailed under his uncle and later [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] in the [[Ottoman Navy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=737}}.</ref> To bolster the empire's navy, Ottoman Sultan [[Bayezid II]] recruited Barbary and [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] corsairs, including Piri and Kemal.<ref name="Hess-1970-p1905">{{harvnb|Hess|1970|p=1905}}.</ref> Before Barbarossa reorganized the navy, sultans commonly employed former pirates.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=319}}.</ref> The addition of experienced corsairs raised the Ottoman Navy's competence in open-sea combat and knowledge of the Mediterranean.<ref name="Hess-1970-p1905" />

In 1495, Kemal Reis was imprisoned on [[Euboea]] for piracy and brought to the capital, [[Constantinople]]. Rather than being sentenced, he was given an official position in the navy. Piri Reis was with his uncle at this time and later documented it in the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|pp=319–320}}.</ref> In the empire's navy, Kemal and Piri advocated taking the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] coastal fortresses of the [[Peloponnese]] and the small but strategically valuable island of [[Rhodes]].<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|pp=222, 232}}.</ref> In his ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', Piri Reis reports that his uncle had told Sultan Bayezid II, "Venice has two eyes: Her left eye is the [harbor] fortress of [[Methoni, Messenia|Modon]]. Her right eye is that of [[Corfu]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=232}}.</ref>

Piri Reis took part in the Ottoman–Venetian wars, including the [[Battle of Zonchio|First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio)]], [[Battle of Lepanto (1500)|Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon)]], and 1501 conquest of [[Old Navarino castle|Navarino]].<ref name="Bostan-2014" /><ref>{{harvnb|Zarinebaf|Bennet|Davis|2005|p=11}}.</ref> During the First Battle of Lepanto, Piri Reis was one of many corsairs in a fleet of about 270 ships that fought through the Venetian fleet and entered the [[Gulf of Corinth]], forcing the governor to surrender.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=92–93}}.</ref> Kemal Reis led the Ottomans in the battles to take the fortresses at Modon and Navarino.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=94–95}}.</ref> After the Ottoman Navy defeated the Venetian fleet at the Peloponnese, they began to take control of the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref>{{harvnb|Hess|1970|pp=1905–1907}}.</ref> In the western Mediterranean, Kemal Reis led [[Ottoman raid on the Balearic Islands (1501)|raids on the Balearic Islands]], [[Sardinia]], and Pianosa.<ref>{{harvnb|Pitcher|1972|p=99}}.</ref> In one naval battle, Piri Reis and his uncle captured a Spaniard who had participated in [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|Columbus's voyages]],<ref name="Soucek 1992 270–271">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|pp=270–271}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=73}}.</ref> and likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would use as a source for his maps.<ref name="Nebenzahl-1990-p62">{{harvnb|Nebenzahl|1990|p=62}}.</ref>

When his uncle died in a 1511 shipwreck in the Mediterranean, Piri Reis returned to Gelibolu to work on his navigational studies.<ref name="Urguplu-2015">{{harvnb|Urguplu|2015}}.</ref>{{efn|Some sources give 1510 as the year Kemal Reis died.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=320}}.</ref> Kemal Reis's last recorded activities were sailing for Egypt in 1510 to bring requested aid against Portuguese incursions.<ref>{{harvnb|Ágoston|2023|pp=136-137}}.</ref> The primary sources for the details of Kemal Reis' death are Venetian letters. Mamluk historian [[Ibn Iyas]] recorded that news of Kemal Reis death reached Cairo, Egpyt, in February 1511.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=97-98}}.</ref>}} There, he completed the world map for which he is well-known today. The manuscript is dated to the month of [[Muharram]] in the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic year]] 919 AH, equivalent to March 1513 AD.<ref name="Massetti-pp41-42">{{harvnb|Massetti|Veracini|2016|pp=41–42}}.</ref><ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p15">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=15}}.</ref> This work included the recently explored shores of the Americas and Africa.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=9}}.</ref> Although he had never sailed the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era.<ref>{{harvnb|Brotton|1998|pp=108–110}}.</ref> At least by 1513, Piri Reis was sailing again for the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa along the coast of North Africa.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=109}}.</ref>

By 1516, Piri Reis was a captain of a galley in the Ottoman fleet that took part in the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt]].<ref name="Bostan-2014" /><ref name="Tekeli-1985-pp675-676">{{harvnb|Tekeli|1985|pp=675–676}}.</ref> He was the commander of the Turkish fleet that blockaded Alexandria.<ref>{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=738}}.</ref> After the Ottoman victory,<ref name="Tekeli-1985-pp675-676" /> Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Sultan [[Selim I]] ({{reign | 1512 | 1520}}).<ref name="Kahle-1933-p621">{{harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=621}}.</ref> It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p270">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=270}}.</ref> According to Venetian documents, Piri Reis was no longer with the Ottoman Navy in 1518 and was engaging in piracy in the Aegean Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|pp=321–322}}.</ref>

[[File:Piri Reis - Map of the Islands of the Aegean Sea Including Chios, Cos, Rhodes and Crete - Walters W658101A - Full Page.jpg|alt=map|thumb|[[Rhodes]] (outlined in red) just off the southern coast of [[Anatolia]]]]

Piri Reis advocated for and took part in [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]'s 1522 [[Siege of Rhodes (1522)|Siege of Rhodes]].<ref name="Soucek-2004-p222">{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=222}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=14}}.</ref> The first version of his ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''—a nautical atlas gifted and dedicated to Suleiman—included advice on conquering Rhodes.<ref name="Soucek-2004-p222"/><ref name="Soucek-2013-p137">{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=137}}.</ref> The island of Rhodes had a secure harbor and was {{cvt|20|km}} off the coast of Anatolia. Controlled by an adversary, it could threaten maritime communication between the empire's capital and Mediterranean ports.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=220}}.</ref> The [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of St. John]] controlled the island, took Muslim captives, and provided shelter to Christian pirates.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=221}}.</ref> During the siege, the Knights' fleet of ten ships remained in the harbor rather than confront the larger Ottoman force.<ref name="Soucek-2004-p223">{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=223}}.</ref> The Ottoman Navy conducted an amphibious operation, transporting many troops to the small island,<ref name="Soucek-2004-p223" /> and the island surrendered in December 1522. The Knights of St. John later relocated to [[Malta]].<ref>{{harvnb|Grima|2021}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yaldız|Kaymakçı|Özgün|2019|pp=224–225}}.</ref> The second version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', completed after the conquest of Rhodes, only discusses the events in terms of the practical concerns of acquiring drinking water from Karabağ in [[Bodrum]] prior to the siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=101}}.</ref>

The longer second version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' resulted from a conversation with the empire's [[List of Ottoman grand viziers|grand vizier]].<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|pp=137–138}}.</ref> Suleiman's reign was the beginning of a shift towards power concentrating in a group of [[vizier]]s, advisers, governors, and royal family members, including Suleiman's childhood friend [[Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha]] who rose to become grand vizier of the empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=34–35}}.</ref> When putting down [[Hain Ahmed Pasha]]'s 1524 rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=36}}.</ref><ref name="Hess-1970-p1905" /> Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts being consulted aboard the ship.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=36–37}}.</ref> Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''.<ref name="Casale-2010-p37">{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=37}}.</ref> He finished it and gifted it to the sultan by 1526. In later centuries, many copies were made of both versions of the book.<ref name="Hepworth-2005-p73">{{harvnb|Hepworth|2005|p=73}}.</ref> Piri Reis completed a second world map in 1528 or 1529.<ref name="Soucek-2013-p141">{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=141}}.</ref> According to [[Sevim Tekeli]], the changes from the first world map demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery.<ref>{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=739}}.</ref>

In both the 1513 world map and the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' preface, Piri Reis rhetorically undermines the significance of European discoveries by reframing them as the rediscovery of ancient knowledge.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|p=876}}.</ref> He invokes [[Alexander the Great]] when explaining the discoveries of Columbus.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|pp=871, 874–875}}.</ref> According to the [[Quran]] and Turkish literary tradition, [[Dhu al-Qarnayn]]—believed to be a [[Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran|Quranic reference to Alexander the Great]]—traveled to every corner of the world, thereby defining its limits.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|pp=864–867, 875}}.</ref> Marginal inscriptions on the world map mention "charts drawn in the days of Alexander" and a book that "fell into the hands" of Columbus describing lands "at the end of the Western Sea".<ref>{{harvnb|Akçura|1935|loc=sec. V}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Akçura|1935|loc=sec. VI}}.</ref> In the 1526 version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', he explicitly credits European discoveries to lost works created during legendary voyages of Alexander, "My friend, the [[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|Franks]] both read and write everything there is to know about the science of the sea. But do not suppose that they invented such knowledge on their own; and if you wish, I will explain why. During his time, the famous ruler Alexander traveled over all the seas, and whatever he saw and whatever he heard he had recorded, item by item, by a competent person."<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|p=875}}.</ref>

Venice saw Piri Reis as an adversary and obstacle to their aims in the [[Middle East]] during the 1530s.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p323">{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=323}}.</ref> In 1532, he fought against [[Dalmatia]]n pirates in the Adriatic.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|pp=322–323}}.</ref> He attacked the Venetian-held castle at [[Koroni|Coron]] in 1533, captured a Venetian galley in 1536, and chased Venetian ships out of the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p323" />

===Grand Admiral of the Indian Ocean Fleet===
[[File:Piri Reis - Map of the Egyptian Coast From Alexandria as Far as the City of Rashid - Walters W658303B - Full Page.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=map|[[Alexandria]] in Egypt as depicted in the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'']]

After [[Sinan Reis]] died in 1546,<ref name="Pedani-2015-p323" /> Piri Reis took his position as {{Transliteration|ota|[[Kapudan Pasha|Hind Kapudan-ı Derya]]}}, or grand admiral of the [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean]], as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt.<ref name="Shaw-1976-p107">{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|p=107}}.</ref> Portuguese ships had raided the Red Sea as far as [[Suez]] and taken the port city of [[Aden]] in Yemen.<ref name="Shaw-1976-p107" /> The Portuguese navy employed [[sailing ship]]s capable of navigation and combat in open seas, while the Ottoman Navy relied mainly on [[galley]]s, which were more effective along the coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and narrow straits around Arabia. The empire focused on using its navy to continue land-based expansion into new areas for tax revenue and agriculture.<ref>{{harvnb|Hess|1970|pp=1916–1917}}.</ref>

Using his fleet based out of Suez, Egypt, Piri Reis led campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6" /> On 26 February 1548, he [[Capture of Aden (1548)|recaptured Aden]] from the [[Portugal|Portuguese]].<ref name="Shaw-1976-p107"/> Piri Reis subdued the local [[Bedouin]] rulers of [[Basra]] in 1547 and began building a Persian Gulf fleet.<ref name="Shaw-1976-pp106-107">{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|pp=106–107}}.</ref> The fleet conducted annual expansions in the Indian Ocean, and some local rulers began to ally with the Portuguese.<ref name="Shaw-1976-pp106-107" />

[[File:Piris Reis expedition map-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=map, full details at link and in article body text|Piri Reis' expedition against Hormuz]]

The sultan instructed Piri Reis to take the Portuguese-controlled [[Hormuz Island]] at the mouth of the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref name="Önalp-2010-pp1-2">{{harvnb|Önalp|2010|pp=1–2}}.</ref> Taking [[Bahrain Island]] was a secondary objective.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|p=107}}.</ref> In April 1552,<ref>{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|p=108}}.</ref> Piri Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, 5 ships, and 850 soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Floor|2006|p=175}}.</ref> In August, the Turkish fleet [[Capture of Muscat (1552)|took Muscat]] after a one-month siege.<ref name="Shaw-1976-p107" /><ref name="Floor-2006-p176">{{harvnb|Floor|2006|p=176}}.</ref> The expedition took control of coastal lands in Yemen, Oman, and Arabia.<ref>{{harvnb|Malekandathil|2010|p=117}}.</ref> The Portuguese prepared for the attack on Hormuz by evacuating most of the island. Wealthy residents took refuge on the nearby island of [[Qeshm]], and the soldiers and royal family retreated to the fortress.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176" />

The Turkish soldiers took the [[Hormuz, Iran|City of Hormuz]] in September 1552, but could not take the fortress.<ref>{{harvnb|Finkel|2007|p=136}}.</ref><ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> They [[Siege of Hormuz (1552)|besieged and bombarded the fortress]] for several weeks, but Piri Reis grew concerned about the Portuguese fleet attacking them during the siege.<ref name="Özbaran 2009 110">{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|p=110}}.</ref> The Ottoman forces ran low on gunpowder, and Kubad Pasha the governor of Basra did not send supplies to the siege.<ref name="Soucek 2011 61">{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|p=61}}.</ref> On 9 October 1552, the Ottomans retreated.<ref name="Özbaran 2009 110"/><ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> They sacked the city, looted Qeshm, and retreated into the gulf with over a million pieces of gold.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> The fleet arrived at Basra by 1553.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=104}}.</ref> A letter from the Portuguese governor inside the fortress, dated 31 October 1552, said that the walls had been near collapsing, but that the Ottomans had run low on "munitions, gunpowder, and other war materials" much of which they had lost when a galleon sank on the way to Hormuz.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|p=111}}.</ref> The [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Portuguese governor of India]], {{ill|Afonso de Noronha|es}} organized a fleet of 40 ships led by his nephew Antão de Noronha that reached Hormuz in November 1552.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|pp=110–111}}.</ref>

Piri Reis was executed following his retreat at Hormuz.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6" /> After the expedition's failure, Kubad Pasha denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys.<ref name="Önalp-2010-pp1-2" /><ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> Historian Svat Soucek suggested that "hostility [between the two men] may have been at the root" of Piri Reis' decision to return to Egypt quickly and the "accusatory report the Pasha probably sent to Constantinople."<ref name="Soucek 2011 61"/> Leaving most of the fleet behind, Piri Reis returned in 1553 with only two ships.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324">{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=324}}.</ref><ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> The gold he brought back to Egypt played a role in his death sentence. Ottoman histories criticize Piri Reis for looting Qeshm. Some even allege that he accepted bribery.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|pp=61–62}}.</ref> Those allegations were unlikely, as a delegation from Hormuz traveled to Constantinople to demand compensation, but they may have been believed at the time of his execution.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|p=63}}.</ref> Venetian diplomats in Constantinople sent a letter dated 15 November 1553 stating that Piri Reis had been replaced by [[Rüstem Pasha]]'s captain, "charged with having raised the siege of the fortress of Hormuz because of bribery", and executed.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324" /> For sacking the city instead of maintaining the siege, the sultan had him beheaded in [[Cairo]].<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324" /> The exact date of his execution is unknown.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324" />

Rüstem Pasha's captain [[Seydi Ali Reis]] attempted to return the fleet that Piri Reis had brought to Basra back to Suez, but [[Battle of the Gulf of Oman|the Portuguese intercepted them]]. The Ottoman ships were all captured, destroyed, or swept out to sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=102}}.</ref> Piri Reis was possibly survived by a son, Mehmed Reis, who is known only from a single portolan map of the Aegean.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov|Bazzaz|Batsaki|2013|p=84}}.</ref>