Editing Pipe organ (section)

==History and development<span id="History"></span>==

===Antiquity===
[[File:Dion654a ancient organ.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.6|[[Hydraulis]] from the 1st century BC, oldest organ found to date, [[Archaeological Museum of Dion|Museum of Dion]], Greece<ref name="Heritage">{{cite web|url=http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Museums/Archaeological_and_Byzantine/Arx_Diou.html|title=The Museums of Macedonia:Archaeological Museum of Dion|publisher=Macedonian Heritage|access-date=28 August 2009|archive-date=18 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418170400/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Museums/Archaeological_and_Byzantine/Arx_Diou.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mosaic of the Female Musicians.jpg|thumb|4th century AD "Mosaic of the Female Musicians" from a [[Byzantine]] villa in [[Maryamin, Hama|Maryamin]], Syria.<ref name = Ring>{{citation | last = Ring | first = Trudy | title = International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&q=mariamin+hama | year = 1994 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | volume = 4 | isbn = 1884964036 | access-date = 19 November 2020 | archive-date = 21 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230221143620/https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&q=mariamin+hama | url-status = live }}</ref>]]

The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in [[ancient Greece]] in the 3rd century BC. The word ''organ'' is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὄργανον}} ({{Transliteration|grc|órganon}}),<ref>Harper, Douglas (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=organum&searchmode=none Organ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207201913/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=organum&searchmode=none |date=7 December 2008 }}. ''[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. Retrieved on 10 February 2008.</ref> a generic term for an instrument or a tool,<ref>Liddell, Henry George & Scott, Robert (1940). [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2374753 Organon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221143621/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2374753&redirect=true |date=21 February 2023 }}. ''A Greek-English Lexicon''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. {{ISBN|0-19-864226-1}}. Perseus. Retrieved on 9 February 2008.</ref> via the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|[[organum (musical instrument)|organum]]}}, an instrument similar to a [[portative organ]] used in ancient Roman circus games.

The Greek engineer [[Ctesibius|Ctesibius of Alexandria]] is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC. He devised an instrument called the [[hydraulis]], which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes.<ref name="hydraulis">Randel "Hydraulis", 385.</ref> The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the [[Roman Empire]]. The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the 2nd century AD,<ref name="hydraulis" /> and true [[bellows]] began to appear in the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th or 7th century AD.<ref name="origin" /> Some 400 pieces of a hydraulis from the year 228 AD were revealed during the 1931 archaeological excavations in 
the former Roman town [[Aquincum]], province of [[Pannonia]] (present day [[Budapest]]), which was used as a music instrument by the Aquincum fire dormitory; a modern replica produces an enjoyable sound.

The 9th century [[Persian people|Persian]] geographer [[Ibn Khordadbeh|Ibn Khurradadhbih]] (d. 913), in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the {{Transliteration|fa|urghun}} (organ) as one of the typical instruments of the [[Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire]].<ref name=Kartomi124>{{citation
 |last=Kartomi
 |first=Margaret J.
 |title=On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments
 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
 |year=1990
 |isbn=0-226-42548-7
 |page=124
}}</ref> It was often used in the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]] in the imperial capital of [[Constantinople]]. A Syrian visitor describes a pipe organ powered by two servants pumping "bellows like a blacksmith's" played while guests ate at the emperor's Christmas dinner in Constantinople in 911.<ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2010"/> The first Western European pipe organ with "great leaden pipes" was sent from Constantinople to the West by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Constantine V]] as a gift to [[Pepin the Short]] King of the [[Franks]] in 757.  Pepin's son [[Charlemagne]] requested a similar organ for his chapel in [[Aachen]] in 812, beginning its establishment in Western European church music.<ref>Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds., "The Organ, an Encyclopedia." Routledge. 2006. p. 327. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&pg=PA327 Extract of page 327]</ref>

===Medieval===
[[File:Utrechts-Psalter CANTICUM-16 organ sheep angel.jpg|thumb|9th century image of an organ, from the [[Utrecht Psalter]].]]

From 800 to the 1400s, the use and construction of organs developed in significant ways, from the invention of the portative and positive organs to the installation of larger organs in major churches such as the cathedrals of [[Winchester Cathedral|Winchester]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Perrot|first=Jean|title=The Organ from its invention in the Hellenistic period to the end of the thirteenth century|publisher=University Press|year=1971}}</ref> and [[Notre-Dame de Paris|Notre Dame]] of Paris.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Craig|title=Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1989|location=Cambridge}}</ref> In this period, organs began to be used in secular and religious settings. The introduction of organ into religious settings is ambiguous, most likely because the original position of the Church was that instrumental music was not to be allowed.<ref name=":0" /> By the 12th century there is evidence for permanently installed organs existing in religious settings such as the [[Abbey of Fécamp]] and other locations throughout Europe.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Kevelaer-StMarien-Chororgel-1-Asio.jpg|thumb|[[Positive organ]]]]
Several innovations occurred to organs in the Middle Ages, such as the creation of the [[Portative organ|portative]] and the [[Positive organ|positive]] organ. The portative organs were small and created for secular use and made of light weight delicate materials that would have been easy for one individual to transport and play on their own.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bridges|first=Geoffrey|date=1992|title=Medieval Portatives|journal=The Galpin Society Journal|volume=45|pages=107–108|doi=10.2307/842265|jstor=842265}}</ref> The portative organ was a "flue-piped keyboard instrument, played with one hand while the other operated the bellows."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bridges|first=Geoffrey|date=1991|title=Medieval Portatives: Some Technical Comments|journal=The Galpin Society Journal|volume=44|pages=103–116|doi=10.2307/842212|jstor=842212}}</ref> Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings. The positive organ was larger than the portative organ but was still small enough to be portable and used in a variety of settings like the portative organ. Toward the middle of the 13th century, the portatives represented in the [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures of illuminated manuscripts]] appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys, as in the [[Cantigas de Santa Maria]].<ref>Riaño, J. F. (1887). [https://archive.org/details/criticalbibliogr00riauoft Critical and Bibliographical Notes on Early Spanish Music] (PDF). London: Quaritch, 119–127. {{ISBN|0-306-70193-6}}.</ref>

It is difficult to directly determine when larger organs were first installed in Europe. An early detailed eyewitness account from [[Wulfstan of Winchester]] gives an idea of what organs were like prior to the 13th century, after which more records of large church organs exist.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=Peter|date=1994|title=Difficulties in Understanding the Earliest Organs|journal=Festschrift Series|pages=167–195}}</ref> In his account, he describes the sound of the organ: "among them bells outstanding in tone and size, and an organ [sounding] through bronze pipes prepared according to the musical proportions."<ref name=":1" /> This is one of the earliest accounts of organs in Europe and also indicates that the organ was large and more permanent than other evidence would suggest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caldwell|first=John|date=1966|title=The Organ in the Medieval Latin Liturgy, 800–1500|journal=Proceedings of the Musical Association|volume=93|pages=11–24|doi=10.1093/jrma/93.1.11}}</ref>

The first organ documented to have been permanently installed was one installed in 1361 in [[Halberstadt]], Germany.<ref name="oxforddict">Kennedy, Michael (Ed.) (2002). "Organ". In ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', p. 644. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> The first documented permanent organ installation likely prompted [[Guillaume de Machaut]] to describe the organ as "the king of instruments", a characterization still frequently applied.<ref>Sumner "The Organ", 39.</ref> The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a [[chromatic]] key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard, although the keys were wider than on modern instruments.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315885/keyboard-instrument Keyboard instrument] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080702232804/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315885/keyboard-instrument |date=2 July 2008 }} (2008). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'' (subscription required, though relevant reference is viewable in concise article). Retrieved on 26 January 2008.</ref> The width of the keys was slightly over two and a half inches, wide enough to be struck down by the fist, as the early keys are reported to have invariably been manipulated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Audsley |first=George Ashdown |title=The Art of Organ Building |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1965 |isbn=0-486-21315-3 |edition=2nd |pages=Volume II, page 61}}</ref> It had twenty bellows operated by ten men, and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full strength of their arm to hold down a key.<ref name="oxforddict"/>

Records of other organs permanently installed and used in worship services in the late 13th and 14th centuries are found in large cathedrals such as [[Notre-Dame de Paris|Notre Dame]], the latter documenting organists hired to by the church and the installation of larger and permanent organs.<ref name=":2" /> The earliest is a payment in 1332 from the clergy of Notre Dame to an organist to perform on the feasts St. Louis and St. Michael.<ref name=":2" /> The Notre Dame School also shows how organs could have been used within the increased use of polyphony, which would have allowed for the use of more instrumental voices within the music.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=Peter|date=1997|title=Further on The Organ in Western Culture 750–1250|journal=The Organ Yearbook |volume=27|pages=133–141}}</ref> According to documentation from the 9th century by Walafrid Strabo, the organ was also used for music during other parts of the church service—the prelude and postlude the main examples—and not just for the effect of polyphony with the choir. Other possible instances of this were short interludes played on the organ either in between parts of the church service or during choral songs, but they were not played at the same time as the choir was singing.<ref>Bowles, E. A. (1962). The Organ in the Medieval Liturgical Service. Revue Belge de Musicologie / Belgisch Tijdschrift Voor Muziekwetenschap, 16(1/4), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.2307/3686069</ref> This shows that by this point in time organs were fully used within church services and not just in secular settings. Organs from earlier in the medieval period are evidenced by surviving keyboards and casings, but no pipes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gwynn|first=Dominic|date=2015|title=The Mediaeval Tradition in English Organ Building|journal=Organists' Review|volume=101|pages=41–45}}</ref> Until the mid-15th century, organs had no stop controls. Each manual controlled ranks at many pitches, known as the "Blockwerk."<ref>Douglass, 10–12.</ref> Around 1450, controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually. These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions.<ref>Thistlethwaite, 5.</ref> The higher-pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control; these stops developed into [[mixture (music)|mixtures]].<ref>Phelps, Lawrence (1973). "[http://www.lawrencephelps.com/Documents/Articles/Phelps/abrieflook.shtml A brief look at the French Classical organ, its origins and German counterpart] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907041150/http://www.lawrencephelps.com/Documents/Articles/Phelps/abrieflook.shtml |date=7 September 2006 }}". Steve Thomas. Retrieved on 7 May 2007.</ref>

{{anchor|baroque organ}}<!--''Baroque organ'' and ''Baroque Organ'' redirect to the above anchor. If this section changes please update the redirects as necessary. TIA -->

===Renaissance and Baroque periods===
[[File:Roskilde_Dom_Innen_Orgel_2.JPG|thumb|upright|The [[baroque music|baroque]] organ in [[Roskilde Cathedral]], Denmark<ref>Organ by Hermean Raphaelis, 1554. [http://copenhagenet.dk/CPH-Roskilde.htm Copenhagen Portal: Roskilde Cathedral] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105153651/http://www.copenhagenet.dk/CPH-Roskilde.htm |date=5 January 2008 }}. GBM MARKETING ApS. Retrieved on 13 May 2008.</ref>]]

During the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] and [[Baroque music|Baroque]] periods, the organ's tonal colors became more varied. Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments, such as the [[krummhorn]] and the [[viol|viola da gamba]]. Builders such as [[Arp Schnitger]], Jasper Johannsen, [[Zacharias Hildebrandt]] and [[Gottfried Silbermann]] constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic, displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound. These organs featured well-balanced mechanical key actions, giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech. Schnitger's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions.<ref name="Webber 222">Webber, 222.</ref>

Different national styles of organ building began to develop, often due to changing political climates.<ref name="Randel 585">Randel "Organ", 585.</ref> In the Netherlands, the organ became a large instrument with several divisions, doubled ranks, and mounted cornets. The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions, and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common.<ref name="Randel 585" /> Organ makers began designing their cases in such a way that the divisions of the organ were visibly discernible. Twentieth-century musicologists have retroactively labelled this the ''Werkprinzip''.<ref>Bicknell "The organ case", 66–71.</ref>

[[File:Monasterio de Santa Cruz, Coímbra, Portugal, 2012-05-10, DD 09 organ edit.jpg|thumb|right|Baroque pipe organ of the 18th century at [[Monastery of Santa Cruz (Coimbra)|Monastery of Santa Cruz]], [[Coimbra]], Portugal]]

In France, as in Italy, Spain and Portugal, organs were primarily designed to play [[alternatim]] verses rather than accompany [[hymns|congregational singing]]. The ''French Classical Organ'' became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era, more so than any other style of organ building in history, and standardized registrations developed.<ref name="Thistlethwaite, 12">Thistlethwaite, 12.</ref><ref>Douglass, 3.</ref> This type of instrument was elaborately described by [[Dom Bédos de Celles]] in his treatise ''L'art du facteur d'orgues'' (''The Art of Organ Building'').<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Bédos de Celles, Dom François (1766). ''[http://www.synec-doc.be/musique/dbedos/dbedos.htm Extraits de l'Art du facteur d'orgues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011041127/http://synec-doc.be/musique/dbedos/dbedos.htm |date=11 October 2007 }}''. Ferguson (Tr.) (1977). Retrieved on 7 May 2007.</ref> The Italian Baroque organ was often a single-manual instrument, without pedals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Peter |title=A New History of the Organ |date=1980 |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=0-571-11459-8 |pages=126–130}}</ref> It was built on a full diapason chorus of octaves and fifths. The stop-names indicated the pitch relative to the fundamental ("Principale") and typically reached extremely short nominal pipe-lengths (for example, if the Principale were 8', the "Vigesimanona" was ½'). The highest ranks "broke back", their smallest pipes replaced by pipes pitched an octave lower to produce a kind of composite treble mixture.

In England, many pipe organs were destroyed or removed from churches during the [[English Reformation]] of the 16th century and the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] period. Some were relocated to private homes. At the [[Stuart Restoration|Restoration]], organ builders such as [[Renatus Harris]] and [[Bernard Smith (organ builder)|"Father" Bernard Smith]] brought new organ-building ideas from continental Europe. English organs evolved from small one- or two-manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures, though still without pedal keyboards.<ref name="England">Randel "Organ", 586–587.</ref> The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early 18th century, and in 1712, Abraham Jordan claimed his "swelling organ" at [[St Magnus-the-Martyr]] to be a new invention.<ref name="Thistlethwaite, 12"/> The [[swell box]] and the independent pedal division appeared in English organs beginning in the 18th century.<ref name="England" /><ref>McCrea, 279–280.</ref>

===Romantic period===
During the Romantic period, the organ became more symphonic, capable of creating a gradual crescendo. This was made possible by voicing stops in such a way that families of tone that historically had only been used separately could now be used together, creating an entirely new way of approaching organ registration. New technologies and the work of organ builders such as [[:de:Eberhard Friedrich Walcker|Eberhard Friedrich Walcker]], [[Aristide Cavaillé-Coll]], and [[Henry Willis & Sons|Henry Willis]] made it possible to build larger organs with more stops, more variation in sound and timbre, and more divisions.<ref name="England" /> For instance, as early as in 1808, the first 32' contre-bombarde was installed in the great organ of Nancy Cathedral, France. Enclosed divisions became common, and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops. The desire for louder, grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before. As a result, a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys. To solve this problem, Cavaillé-Coll configured the English "[[Barker lever]]" to assist in operating the key action. This is, essentially, a servomechanism that uses wind pressure from the air plenum, to augment the force that is exerted by the player's fingers.<ref>Randel "Organ", 586.</ref><!--Combination actions were developed to aid the organist in carrying out the multitude of registration changes required to play Romantic music.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}-->

Organ builders began to prefer specifications with fewer mixtures and high-pitched stops, more 8′ and 16′ stops and wider pipe scales.<ref>"The decline of mixtures," in George Laing Miller (1913), ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21204/21204-h/21204-h The Recent Revolution in Organ Building] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917040223/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21204/21204-h/21204-h |date=17 September 2011 }}''. Retrieved on 7 July 2009.</ref> These practices created a warmer, richer sound than was common in the 18th century. Organs began to be built in concert halls (such as the organ at the [[Trocadéro, Paris|Palais du Trocadéro]] in Paris), and composers such as [[Camille Saint-Saëns]] and [[Gustav Mahler]] used the organ in their orchestral works.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Yoke.JPG|A typical modern 20th-century console, located in [[St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin]]
File:Basilica_of_Saint_Denis_Organ,_Paris,_France_-_Diliff.jpg|The organ of the Cathedral-[[Basilica of Saint-Denis]] (France), first organ of [[Aristide Cavaille-Coll]] containing numerous innovations, and especially the first [[Barker lever]].
File:Buffet grand-orgue.jpg|[[Great organ of Nancy Cathedral|The Cavaillé-Coll organ of the cathedral of Nancy, featured the first 32' Bombarde in France.]] (France)
</gallery>

===Modern development===
[[File:Dülmen, St.-Viktor-Kirche, Innenansicht -- 2018 -- 0661.jpg|thumb|The pipe organ in the St Viktor Church, Dülmen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, exhibits a modern façade.]]

The development of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes, greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design. Electric stop actions were also developed, which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created.<ref>Thistlethwaite, 14–15.</ref>

Beginning in the early 20th century in Germany and in the mid-20th century in the United States, organ builders began to build [[Historically informed performance|historically inspired]] instruments modeled on Baroque organs. They returned to building mechanical key actions, voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales, and designing specifications with more mixture stops.<ref>Bicknell "Organ building today", 82ff.</ref> This became known as the [[Organ Reform Movement]].

In the late 20th century, organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key, stop, and combination actions. Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable, this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist's performance using the [[MIDI]] protocol.<ref>Retrieved on 7 July 2009.</ref> In addition, some organ builders have incorporated digital (electronic) stops into their pipe organs.

The [[electronic organ]] developed throughout the 20th century. Some pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price, smaller physical size, and minimal maintenance requirements. In the early 1970s, [[Rodgers Instruments]] pioneered the ''hybrid'' organ, an electronic instrument that incorporates real pipes; other builders such as [[Allen Organs]] and [[Johannus Orgelbouw]] have since built hybrid organs. Allen Organs first introduced the electronic organ in 1937 and in 1971 created the first digital organ using CMOS technology borrowed from NASA which created the digital pipe organ using sound recorded from actual speaking pipes and incorporating the sounds electronically within the memory of the digital organ thus having real pipe organ sound without the actual organ pipes.