Editing Personality psychology (section)

==Philosophical assumptions==
Many of the ideas conceptualized by historical and modern [[personality]] theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of [[art]], [[science]], and [[philosophy]] to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree:<ref name=Engler>{{cite book|last=Engler|first=Barbara|title=Personality theories : an introduction|year=2008|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston, MA|isbn=9780547148342|edition=8th}}</ref>

* '''Freedom versus determinism''' – This is the question of whether humans have control over their own behavior and understand the motives behind it, or if their behavior is causally determined by forces beyond their control. Behavior is categorized as being either unconscious, environmental or biological by various theories.<ref name=Engler />
* '''Heredity (nature) versus environment (nurture)''' – Personality is thought to be determined largely either by [[genetics]] and [[biology]], or by environment and experiences. Contemporary research suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment. One of the forerunners in this arena is [[C. Robert Cloninger]], who pioneered the Temperament and Character model.<ref name=Engler />
* '''Uniqueness versus universality''' – This question discusses the extent of each human's individuality ([[uniqueness]]) or similarity in nature ([[Universality (philosophy)|universality]]). [[Gordon Allport]], [[Abraham Maslow]], and [[Carl Rogers]] were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasize the importance of universal principles, such as reinforcement and [[self-efficacy]].<ref name=Engler />
* '''Active versus reactive''' – This question explores whether humans primarily act through individual initiative (active) or through outside [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]]. Traditional behavioral theorists typically believed that humans are passively shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe that humans play a more active role.<ref name=Engler /> Most modern theorists agree that both are important, with aggregate behavior being primarily determined by traits and situational factors being the primary predictor of behavior in the short term.<ref name = person_situation>{{cite journal | last1 = Fleeson | first1 = W. | year = 2004 | title = Moving personality beyond the person-situation debate: The challenge and the opportunity of within-person variability | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 83–87 | doi=10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00280.x| s2cid = 32537319 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Zayas|first=V|author2=Shoda Y|title=Three decades after the personality paradox: Understanding situations|journal=Journal of Research in Personality|year=2009|volume=43|issue=2|pages=280–281|doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2009.03.011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tapu|first=C.S.|title=Hypostatic personality: psychopathology of doing and being made|year=2001|publisher=Premier|isbn=978-9738030596|pages=28–31}}</ref>
* '''Optimistic versus pessimistic''' – Personality theories differ with regard to whether humans are integral in the changing of their own personalities. Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often more optimistic than those that do not.<ref name=Engler />