Editing Perry (section)

==Production==
===Fruit===

The pears used to make perry are typically not the large, sweet varieties eaten as fresh fruit. Perry pears tend to be small and relatively {{nowrap|bitter{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}}}the distinction between table pears and perry pears is similar to the distinction between table apples and cider apples. Perry pears are thought to be descended from wild hybrids, known as ''wildings'', between the cultivated pear ''[[Pyrus communis]]'' subsp. ''communis'' and the now-rare wild pear [[Pyrus pyraster|''Pyrus communis'' subsp. ''pyraster'']].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ciderculture.com/ciderologist-speaks-praise-perry/|title=The Ciderologist Speaks: In Praise of Perry|last=Cook|first=Gabe|date=25 September 2017}}</ref> The cultivated pear ''P. communis'' was brought to northern Europe by the Romans. In the fourth century CE [[Saint Jerome]] referred to perry as ''piracium''.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Horticultural Reviews|last1=Merwin|first1=Ian A.|last2=Valois|first2=Sarah|last3=Padilla-Zakour|first3=Olga I.|date=2008-04-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn=9780470380147|location=Hoboken, NJ, USA|pages=365–415|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470380147.ch6}}</ref> Wild pear hybrids were, over time, selected locally for desirable qualities, and, by the 1800s, many regional varieties had been identified.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|url=http://cider.wsu.edu/perry/|title=Perry {{!}} Washington State University|website=cider.wsu.edu|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-29}}</ref>
[[File:Perry pears, Nichols Orchard, Dyrham Park (geograph 2630034).jpg|thumb|right|Perry pears growing at [[Dyrham Park]]]]

The majority of perry pear varieties in the UK originate from the counties of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, and Worcestershire in the [[west of England]]; perry from these counties made from traditional recipes now forms a [[European Union]] [[Protected Geographical Indication]]. Of these perry pear varieties, most originate in parishes around [[May Hill, Gloucestershire|May Hill]] on the Gloucestershire/Herefordshire border.<ref name=gog>[http://www.gloucestershireorchardgroup.org.uk/varieties/pears/ Gloucestershire Orchard Group, Pears] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825173832/http://www.gloucestershireorchardgroup.org.uk/varieties/pears |date=25 August 2010 }}, accessed 08-12-2009</ref> The standard reference work on perry pears was published in 1963 by the [[Long Ashton Research Station]]; since then, many varieties have become critically endangered or lost. Over 100 varieties, known by over 200 local names, were in Gloucestershire alone.<ref name=ppm>[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/scrumpy/cider/history2.htm Pears and Perry Making in the UK] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218181435/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/scrumpy/cider/history2.htm |date=18 February 2010 }}, accessed 8 December 2009</ref> These local pears are particularly known for their picturesque names, such as the various "Huffcap" varieties ('Hendre Huffcap', 'Red Huffcap', 'Black Huffcap', all having an elliptical shape), those named for the effects of their product ('Merrylegs', 'Mumblehead'), pears commemorating an individual ('[[Stinking Bishop pear|Stinking Bishop]]', named for the man who first grew it, or 'Judge Amphlett', named for [[Assizes (England and Wales)|Assizes]] court judge Richard Amphlett), or those named for the place they grew ('[[Hartpury]] Green', '[[Bosbury]] Scarlet', '[[Bartestree]] Squash'). The perry makers of Normandy grew their own distinctive varieties such as ''Plant de Blanc'', ''Antricotin'' and ''Fausset''; the perry of [[Domfront, Orne|Domfront]], which has been recognised with [[Appellation d'origine contrôlée|AOC]] status since 2002 and PDO status since 2006, must be made with a minimum of 40% ''Plant de Blanc''.<ref name=domfront>[http://poire-domfront.fr/poire-domfront/ Le Poire Domfront], accessed 23-05-2018</ref>

Pear [[cultivar]]s used for perry-making tend to be small in size, turbinate or pyriform in shape, and too astringent for culinary use.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Postman|first=Joseph|date=April 2002|title=Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties: List 41|url=http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/37/2/251.full.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110121131/http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/37/2/251.full.pdf |archive-date=2020-01-10 |url-status=live|journal=HortScience|volume=37|pages=261–262}}</ref> Specific perry pear cultivars are regularly used to make single-variety perries; this was formerly the usual practice in traditional perry making, meaning that in the past, each parish would have produced its own characteristic and distinctive perries due to the very restricted distribution of many varieties.<ref name=luckwill27>Luckwill and Billard (1963) ''Perry Pears: Produced as a Memorial to Professor B. T. P. Barker''. Bristol: National Fruit and Cider Institute, p.27</ref> Blended perries, made from the juices of several varieties, were traditionally disregarded as they tended to throw a haze, though in modern commercial production, this is overcome with filtration and use of a centrifuge.

Good perry pears should have higher concentrations of [[tannin]]s, acids, and other [[Phenols|phenolic compounds]].<ref name=":33"/> Some of the pears considered to produce consistently excellent perry include the 'Barland', 'Brandy', 'Thorn,' and 'Yellow Huffcap' cultivars.<ref name=":02" /> Compared to cider apples, perry pears have fewer volatile components and consequently fewer aromatics in the finished product.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Fruit Processing|last=Jarvis|first=B.|date=1996|publisher=Springer, Boston, MA|isbn=9781461358756|pages=97–134|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-2103-7_5|chapter = Cider, perry, fruit wines and other alcoholic fruit beverages}}</ref> Their tannin profile is very different from that of cider apples, with a predominance of astringent over bitter flavours. They do, however, contain a high concentration of [[Ethyl decadienoate|deca-2,4-dienoate]], a group of esters that affords them their prominent pear aroma.<ref name=":12" /> Another important attribute of perry pears that distinguishes them from cider apples is their relatively higher content ratio of [[sorbitol]] to other sugars, such as [[fructose]]. Because sorbitol is not readily fermented by [[yeast]], it is not converted to [[ethanol]], so perry tends to have more residual sugar than [[cider]] produced from the fermentation of apples.<ref name=":42">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/06/01/479367453/perry-craft-cider-s-pear-cousin-shines|title=Raise A Glass To Perry, Craft Cider's Pear Cousin|work=NPR.org|access-date=2018-04-29|language=en}}</ref> In addition to producing a sweeter beverage, sorbitol also contributes to increased body and a softer mouthfeel in the finished perry.<ref name=":12" /> Compared to apples, pear pressing is made more difficult by the additional presence of specialized cells known as [[sclereid]]s, which have thick cell walls that provide extra support and strength to the pear tissue.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|url=http://fluoview.magnet.fsu.edu/gallery/plants/pearfruitsclereids.html|title=Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Confocal Gallery - Pear Fruit Sclereids|website=fluoview.magnet.fsu.edu|access-date=2018-04-29|archive-date=18 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518055934/http://fluoview.magnet.fsu.edu/gallery/plants/pearfruitsclereids.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Because of this inherent perry pear attribute, the addition of enzymes and pressing aids is a commonly used practice for improving perry production.<ref name=":6" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Categories of perry pears<ref>HortScience, vol 9, october 1974, page 423</ref><ref>HortScience, Vol. 37(2):251-272</ref>
|-
! Type !! Acidity % !! Tannin % !! Cultivars
|-
| Sweet || <0.3 || < 0.1 || Barnet, Red Pear
|-
| Medium Bittersharp || 0.3 - 0.45 || 0.1 - 0.2 || 'Blakeney Red', 'Gin'
|-
| Bittersharp || > 0.45|| < 0.2 || 'Butt', 'Barland'
|-
| Medium sharp || 0.3 - 0.45 || < 0.1 || 'Brandy', 'Hendre Huffcap'
|-
| Sharp || > 0.45 || < 0.1 || 'Yellow Huffcap'
|}

===Orchard management and harvesting===
[[File:Perry_Pear_Orchard,_Wick_Court_(geograph_2567501).jpg|thumb|right|Mature perry pear orchard at Wick Court, near [[Arlingham]]: As usual in traditional perry orchards, the trees are of extremely large size.]]

While cultivation of pears has been to some extent modernised, they remain a difficult crop to grow. Perry pear trees can live to a great age, and can be fully productive for 250 years. Pear trees, both domestic and perry varieties, grow incredibly slowly, taking up to, if not over, a decade before they bear enough fruit for harvest.<ref name=":42" /> They also grow to a considerable height and can have very large canopies; [[Holme Lacy Pear|the largest recorded]], a tree at [[Holme Lacy]], which still partly survives, covered three-quarters of an acre and yielded a crop of 5–7 tons in 1790.<ref name="tcppp">Oliver, T. ''[http://www.theolivers.org.uk/SFPP_Protocol.pdf The Three Counties & Welsh Marches Perry Presidium Protocol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721235337/http://www.theolivers.org.uk/SFPP_Protocol.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}''</ref> Given the long maturing period of pear trees, they can be difficult to manage against diseases. Their size makes it difficult to apply pesticides, which makes preventing [[fire blight]], a disease caused by the bacterium ''Erwinia amylovora'' that pears are even more susceptible to than cider apples, quite challenging.<ref name=":6" /> These difficulties, along with demand for perry pears having (until recently) taken a decline, have prompted a national collection of perry pear cultivars to be gathered, housed, and cared for at the Three Counties Agricultural Showground at Malvern in Worcestershire, to maintain genetic resources,<ref name=":12" /> which has now become the [[National Perry Pear Centre]] at Hartpury.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalperrypearcentre.org.uk/|title=National Perry Pear Centre - Conserving a part of our orchard heritage|website=National Perry Pear Centre|language=en-US|access-date=2018-05-14}}</ref> Similar germplasm repositories can be found at the [[National Clonal Germplasm Repository]] in Corvallis, Oregon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/corvallis-or/national-clonal-germplasm-repository/docs/ncgr-corvallis-distribution-policies/|title=NCGR Corvallis Distribution Policies : USDA ARS|website=www.ars.usda.gov|access-date=2018-05-14}}</ref>

Also, key differences between cider and perry production exist in the harvesting and growing processes. Perry trees famously take more time to mature than cider trees. While cider trees may come to bear fruit in three to five years, traditionally managed perry trees typically take much longer, so much so that people say that one plants "pears for your heirs".<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Ripe|first=Cherry|date=2009|title=Perry|jstor=10.1525/gfc.2009.9.4.58|journal=Gastronomica|volume=9|issue=4|pages=58–61|doi=10.1525/gfc.2009.9.4.58|url=http://gcfs.ucpress.edu/content/9/4/58.full.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721004648/http://gcfs.ucpress.edu/content/9/4/58.full.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-21 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Even when fully grown, pear trees bear less fruit than apples, which is one reason that perry is less common than cider.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://shaponline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Robinson-Pear-talk12.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517223459/http://shaponline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Robinson-Pear-talk12.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-17 |url-status=live|title=High Density Pears: Profitable Not Just for You and your Heirs|last=Robinson|first=Terrence|website=shaponline.org|access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> When time to harvest comes, pears should be picked before they are ripe and then left to ripen indoors, while apples should be allowed to ripen on the tree.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://extension.wsu.edu/benton-franklin/wp-content/uploads/sites/27/2013/12/Harvesting-Apples-and-Pears.pdf?x56665|title=Harvesting Apples and Pears|last=Hiller|first=Val|date=November 1997|website=wsu.edu|access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> Both apples and pears suffer from [[fire blight]], which can devastate entire orchards, but pears are also susceptible to pear psylla (also known as ''[[Psylla pyri]]'').<ref name=":2" /> These insects kill the entire pear tree and are very resistant to insecticides, making them a severe problem for pear orchards.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://jenny.tfrec.wsu.edu/opm/displaySpecies.php?pn=120|title=Pear psylla|website=jenny.tfrec.wsu.edu|access-date=2018-05-15|archive-date=2 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602003659/http://jenny.tfrec.wsu.edu/opm/displaySpecies.php?pn=120|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another added complication is that while apples are often harvested mechanically, pears must be harvested by hand, greatly increasing the time and cost of harvesting.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Pear Production Technology|last=Verma|first=M. K.|date=2014-01-01|isbn=9789383168095|pages=249–255}}</ref>

===Perry-making technique===
[[File:Cider-quern.jpg|thumb|right|Quern for making perry and cider at [[Hellens]], Herefordshire, where a large orchard was planted to commemorate the coronation of [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] - avenues of perry pears from it still survive. The varieties 'Hellens Early' and 'Hellens Green' were named after the house.]]
Traditional perry making is broadly similar to traditional cider making, in that the fruit is picked, crushed, and pressed to extract the juice, which is then fermented using the wild yeasts found on the fruit's skin. Traditional perry making employed [[Quern-stone|querns]] and a rack and cloth [[Fruit press|press]], in which the pulp is wrapped in cloth before being squeezed with a press.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages: Technical, Analytical and Nutritional Aspects|last=Buglass|first=Alan J.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|year=2011|isbn=978-0-470-51202-9|pages=240–241}}</ref> Modern perry production can use a [[belt filter|belt press]], which is much more efficient for pressing fruit.<ref name=":8" /> It works by sending the fruit down a conveyor belt, on which it is then pressed by rollers.<ref name=":8" /> The principal differences between perry and cider production are that pears must be left for a period to mature after picking, and the [[pomace]] must be left to stand after initial crushing to lose [[tannin]]s, a process analogous to wine [[Maceration (wine)|maceration]]. <ref>Grafton, G. [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/scrumpy/cider/perry.htm Perry Making] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207121437/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/scrumpy/cider/perry.htm |date=7 February 2007 }}, accessed 8 December 2009 {{verify source |date=September 2023 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/841647144 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/841634534 cite #6 - verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC_bot/Job_18]]}}</ref> Additionally, because of the variation in hardness of the fruit, determining if a pear is ready for pressing than an apple can be more difficult.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ciderworkshop.com/perry.html|title=The Cider Workshop {{!}} Production {{!}} What's different about perry?|website=www.ciderworkshop.com|access-date=2018-05-14}}</ref> Also, key chemical compositional differences occur between apples and pears; these factors play a crucial role in prefermentation and fermentation decisions for perry production.
[[File:BeltPress.svg|thumb|A diagram of a belt press]]

Compared to most apples, pears tend to have more sugar and total phenolic compounds. The main sugars in perry pears are [[glucose]] (192 –284&nbsp;mg/L), [[xylose]] (140–176&nbsp;mg/g), and [[galacturonic acid]] (108–118&nbsp;mg/g). Types of sugar that are present in the juice play an important role in yeast activity and determine the success of fermentation. Unlike the juice of apples, pear juice contains significant quantities of unfermentable sugar alcohols, particularly sorbitol.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buglass|first1=A. J.|title=Cider and Perry|date=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|location=CH11|pages=231–265}}</ref> The presence of sorbitol can give perry a residual sweetness, in addition to a mild laxative effect.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jolicoeur|first1=C|title=The New Cider Maker's Handbook|date=2013|pages=155}}</ref>
Pear juices contain rather low levels of amino acids, sources of nitrogen such as aspargine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buglass|first1=A. J.|title=Cider and Perry|date=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|location=CH11|page=237}}</ref>

After initial fermentation, many perries go through [[malolactic fermentation]]. On average, compared to apples, pears have higher levels of titrable acidity, most of it being citric acid. In environments with high levels of malic acid, such as grape must in winemaking, malolactic fermentation bacteria convert malic acid to lactic acid, reducing the perception of acidity and increasing complexity of flavour. However, if high levels of citric acid are present, as in pear pomace, malolactic fermentation bacteria catabolise citric acid to acetic acid and oxaloacetic acid, instead of lactic acid.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yoshimi|first1=Shimazu|last2=Uehara|first2=Mikio|last3=Watanabe|first3=Masazumi|title=Transformation of Citric Acid to Acetic Acid, Acetoin and Diacetyl by Wine Making Lactic Acid Bacteria|journal=Agricultural and Biological Chemistry|volume=49|issue=7|pages=2147–2157|doi=10.1080/00021369.1985.10867041|year=1985}}</ref> This results in a floral, citrus-like aroma in the final product, lacking the diacethyl odour typical for most products that have undergone a malolactic fermentation.