Editing Peer pressure (section)

== Childhood and adolescence ==

=== Children ===
Imitation plays a large role in children's lives; in order to pick up skills and techniques that they use in their own life, children are always searching for behaviors and attitudes around them that they can co-opt. In other words, children are influenced by people that are important in their lives, such as friends, parents, celebrities (including YouTubers), singers, dancers, etc. This may explain why children with parents who eat unhealthy or don't live active lifestyles can conform to creating habits just like their parents as young adults, and why children try to walk when very young. Children are aware of their position in the social hierarchy from a young age: their instinct is to defer to adults' judgements and majority opinions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Corriveau|first1=Kathleen H.|last2=Harris|first2=Paul L.|date=2010-03-01|title=Preschoolers (sometimes) defer to the majority in making simple perceptual judgments.|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=46|issue=2|pages=437–445|doi=10.1037/a0017553|issn=1939-0599|pmid=20210502}}</ref> Similar to the [[Asch conformity experiments]], a study done on groups of preschool children showed that they were influenced by groups of their peers to change their opinion to a demonstrably wrong one.<ref name="HaunTomasello2011">{{cite journal|last1=Haun|first1=Daniel B. M.|last2=Tomasello|first2=Michael|author2-link=Michael Tomasello|title=Conformity to Peer Pressure in Preschool Children|journal=Child Development|volume=82|issue=6|year=2011|pages=1759–1767|issn=0009-3920|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01666.x|pmid=22023172|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C434-2|s2cid=3218812|url=http://www.eva.mpg.de/documents/Wiley-Blackwell/Haun_Conformity_ChildDev_2011_1552445.pdf|hdl-access=free|access-date=September 1, 2019|archive-date=August 9, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809025737/http://www.eva.mpg.de/documents/Wiley-Blackwell/Haun_Conformity_ChildDev_2011_1552445.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Each child was handed a book with two sets of images on each page, with a groups of differently sized animals on the left hand page and one animal on the right hand, and each child was asked to indicate the size of the lone animal. All the books appeared the same, but the last child would sometimes get a book that was different. The children reported their size judgements in turn, and the child being tested was asked last. Before the child was to be tested, however, there was a group of children working in conjunction with the researchers. Sometimes, the children who answered before the test subject all gave an incorrect answer. When asked in the presence of the other children, the last child's response was often the same as his or her peers. However, when allowed to privately share their responses with a researcher, the children proved much more resistant to their peers' pressure, illustrating the importance of the physical presence of their peers in shaping their opinions.<ref name="HaunTomasello2011"/>

An observation is that children can monitor and intervene in their peers' behavior through pressure. A study conducted in a remedial kindergarten class, in the Edna A. Hill Child Development Laboratory at the University of Kansas, was designed to measure how children could ease disruptive behavior in their peers through a two-part system. After describing a series of tasks to their classroom that included going to the bathroom, cleaning up, and general classroom behavior, teachers and researchers would observe children's performance on the tasks. The study focused on three children who were clearly identified as being more disruptive than their peers. They looked at their responses to potential techniques. They utilized the two-part system: first, each student would be given points by their teachers for correctly completing tasks with little disruption (e.g. sitting down on a mat for reading time), and if a student reached three points by the end of the day they would receive a prize. The second part brought in peer interaction, where students who reached three points were appointed "peer monitors" whose role was to lead their small groups and assign points at the end of the day. The results were clear-cut, showing that the monitored students' disruption level dropped when teachers started the points system and monitored them, but when peer monitors were introduced the target students' disruption dropped to average rates of 1% for student C1, 8% for student C2, and 11% for student C3 (down from 36%, 62%, and 59%, respectively). Even small children, then, are susceptible to pressure from their peers, and that pressure can be used to effect positive change in academic and social environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carden Smith|first1=L. K.|last2=Fowler|first2=S. A.|date= 1984|title=Positive peer pressure: the effects of peer monitoring on children's disruptive behavior|journal=Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis|volume=17|issue=2|pages=213–227|doi=10.1901/jaba.1984.17-213|issn=0021-8855|pmc=1307935|pmid=6735953}}</ref>

=== Adolescence ===
Adolescence is the time when a person is most susceptible to peer pressure because peers become an important influence on behavior during adolescence, and peer pressure has been called a hallmark of adolescent experience.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |chapter=Adolescents' Relationships with Peers |encyclopedia=Handbook of Adolescent Psychology |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |location=Hoboken, NJ|last=Brown |first=B. Bradford |date=2004 |editor-last=Lerner |editor-first=R. M. |edition=2nd |pages=363–394 |doi=10.1002/9780471726746.ch12 |isbn=978-0-471-72674-6 |editor-first2=L. |editor-last2=Steinburg}}</ref><ref name="SteinbergMonahan20072">{{cite journal|last2=Monahan |first2=Kathryn C.|year=2007|title=Age differences in resistance to peer influence|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1531–1543|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531|pmid=18020830|last1=Steinberg|author-link=Laurence Steinberg|first1=Laurence|pmc=2779518}}</ref> Children entering this period in life become aware for the first time of the other people around them and realize the importance of perception in their interactions. Peer conformity in young people is most pronounced with respect to style, taste, appearance, ideology, and values.<ref>Durkin, Kevin. "Peer Pressure", In:  Anthony S. R. Manstead and [[Miles Hewstone]] (Eds.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology, 1996.</ref> Peer pressure is commonly associated with episodes of adolescent risk-taking because these activities [[Peer contagion|commonly occur in the company of peers]].<ref name="SteinbergMonahan20072" /> Affiliation with friends who engage in risky behaviors has been shown to be a strong predictor of an adolescent's own behavior.<ref name="SpearKulbok20012">{{cite journal|last2=Kulbok|first2=Pamela A|year=2001|title=Adolescent Health Behaviors and Related Factors: A Review|journal=Public Health Nursing|volume=18|issue=2|pages=82–93|doi=10.1046/j.1525-1446.2001.00082.x|pmid=11285102|last1=Spear|first1=Hila J.}}</ref> Peer pressure can also have positive effects when youth are pressured by their peers toward positive behavior, such as volunteering for charity,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Family/Modern-Parenthood/2012/1025/Teens-and-volunteering-Altruism-or-just-peer-pressure |title=Teens and volunteering: Altruism or just peer pressure? |last=Hanes |first=Stephanie |date=2012-10-25 |work=Christian Science Monitor |access-date=2019-12-14 |issn=0882-7729 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214182521/https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Family/Modern-Parenthood/2012/1025/Teens-and-volunteering-Altruism-or-just-peer-pressure |url-status=live }}</ref> excelling in academics, or participating in a service project.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://archive.triblive.com/lifestyles/more-lifestyles/peer-pressure-for-students-and-adults-can-be-positive/ |title=Peer pressure — for students and adults — can be positive |last=Gormly |first=Kellie B. |date=March 18, 2013 |work=[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]] |access-date=2019-12-14 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214182419/https://archive.triblive.com/lifestyles/more-lifestyles/peer-pressure-for-students-and-adults-can-be-positive/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The importance of peer approval declines upon entering adulthood.<ref name="BrownEicher19862">{{cite journal|last2=Eicher|first2=Sue Ann|last3=Petrie|first3=Sandra|year=1986|title=The importance of peer group ("crowd") affiliation in adolescence|journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=9|issue=1|pages=73–96|doi=10.1016/S0140-1971(86)80029-X|pmid=3700780|last1=Brown|first1=B. Bradford}}</ref>

Even though socially accepted children are more prone to experience higher, more frequent, positive fulfillments and participate in more opportunities, research shows that social acceptance (being in the popular crowd) may increase the likelihood of engaging in risky behavior, depending on the norms in the group. Groups of popular children showed an increased propensity to engage in risky, drug-related and delinquent behavior when this behavior was likely to receive approval in their groups. Peer pressure was greatest among more popular children because they were the children most attuned to the judgments of their peers, making them more susceptible to group pressures.<ref name="AllenPorter20052">{{cite journal|last2=Porter|first2=Maryfrances R.|last3=McFarland|first3=F. Christy|last4=Marsh|first4=Penny|last5=McElhaney|first5=Kathleen Boykin|year=2005|title=The Two Faces of Adolescents' Success With Peers: Adolescent Popularity, Social Adaptation, and Deviant Behavior|journal=Child Development|volume=76|issue=3|pages=747–760|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00875.x|pmid=15892790|last1=Allen|first1=Joseph P.|author1-link=Joseph P. Allen (psychologist)|pmc=1551978}}</ref> Gender also has a clear effect on the amount of peer pressure an adolescent experiences: girls report significantly higher pressures to conform to their groups<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=B. Bradford|title=The extent and effects of peer pressure among high school students: A retrospective analysis|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=11|issue=2|pages=121–133|doi=10.1007/BF01834708|pmid=24310728|issn=0047-2891|year=1982 |s2cid=40116993}}</ref> in the form of clothing choices or speech patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clasen|first1=Donna Rae|last2=Brown|first2=B. Bradford|title=The multidimensionality of peer pressure in adolescence |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=14|issue=6|pages=451–468|doi=10.1007/BF02139520|pmid=24301413|issn=0047-2891|year=1985|s2cid=6465967}}</ref> Additionally, girls and boys reported facing differing amounts of pressures in different areas of their lives, perhaps reflecting a different set of values and priorities for each gender.<ref name=":32" /> Both boys and girls are susceptible to peer pressure, but what it revolves around is defining the values, beliefs, or attitudes that their peer groups have or deeply desire. For girls, it typically revolves around their physical appearance, including their fashion choices, such as wearing [[thong underwear]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Wallis| first = Claudia | title = The Thing About Thongs| url = https://time.com/archive/6669699/the-thing-about-thongs/| work = [[Time Magazine]] | publisher = [[Time Magazine]] | location = US | date = 6 October 2003 | access-date = 11 October 2024}}</ref> For boys, it's more likely to revolve around typical masculine ideals, such as athleticism or intellect. Either way, peer pressure tends to follow the trends with the current world.

Peer pressure is widely recognized as a major contributor to the initiation of drug use, particularly in adolescents.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Hoffmann|first2=John P.|author2-link=John P. Hoffmann|last3=Yang|first3=Xiaoyan|date=15 October 2005|title=Parental and Peer Influences on the Risk of Adolescent Drug Use|journal=The Journal of Primary Prevention|volume=26|issue=6|pages=529–551|doi=10.1007/s10935-005-0014-8|pmid=16228115|last1=Bahr|first1=Stephen J.|s2cid=24670181}}</ref> This has been shown for a variety of substances, including nicotine<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Shiang-Jeou|first2=Shyu|last3=Liang|first3=Jersey|date=1990|title=Peer influence in adolescent cigarette smoking|journal=Addictive Behaviors|volume=15|issue=3|pages=247–255|doi=10.1016/0306-4603(90)90067-8|pmid=2378284|last1=Urberg|first1=Kathryn A.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=White|first2=Kamila S.|date=April 1998|title=Peer influences and drug use among urban adolescents: Family structure and parent-adolescent relationship as protective factors.|journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|volume=66|issue=2|pages=248–258|doi=10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.248|last1=Farrell|first1=Albert D.|pmid=9583328}}</ref> and alcohol.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Butchart|first2=A. T.|last3=Shope|first3=J. T.|date=1993|title=Structural Equation Model Tests of Patterns of Family Interaction, Peer Alcohol Use, and Intrapersonal Predictors of Adolescent Alcohol Use and Misuse|journal=Journal of Drug Education|volume=23|issue=3|pages=273–316|doi=10.2190/8YXM-K9GB-B8FD-82NQ|pmid=8263671|last1=Dielman|first1=T. E.|s2cid=27589804}}</ref> While this link is well established, moderating factors do exist. For example, parental monitoring is negatively associated with substance use; yet when there is little monitoring, adolescents are more likely to succumb to peer coercion during initiation to substance use, but not during the transition from experimental to regular use.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=8197008|year=1994|last1=Steinberg|first1=L.|title=Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use|journal=Pediatrics|volume=93|issue=6 Pt 2|pages=1060–4|last2=Fletcher|first2=A.|last3=Darling|first3=N.|doi=10.1542/peds.93.6.1060 |s2cid=245182006 }} Also available as:<br /> {{Cite book | doi=10.1017/CBO9780511527906.016 |chapter = Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use|title = Coercion and Punishment in Long-Term Perspectives|pages = 259–271|year = 1995|last1 = Fletcher|first1 = Anne C.|last2 = Darling|first2 = Nancy|last3 = Steinberg|first3 = Laurence|isbn = 9780521450690}}</ref> Caldwell and colleagues extended this work by finding that peer pressure was a factor leading to heightened risk in the context of social gatherings with little parental monitoring, and if the individual reported themselves as vulnerable to peer pressure.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Darling|first2=Nancy|date=1999|title=Leisure Context, Parental Control, and Resistance to Peer Pressure as Predictors of Adolescent Partying and Substance Use: An Ecological Perspective|doi=10.1080/00222216.1999.11949851|journal=Journal of Leisure Research|volume=31|issue=1|pages=57–77|last1=Caldwell|first1=Linda|bibcode=1999JLeiR..31...57C |s2cid=142326608}}</ref> Conversely, some research has observed that peer pressure can be a protective factor against substance use.<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2002|title=Friends: The Role of Peer Influence Across Adolescent Risk Behaviors|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=31|issue=4|pages=267–277|doi=10.1023/A:1015493316865|last1=Maxwell|first1=Kimberly A.|s2cid=46914786}}</ref>

Peer pressure produces a wide array of negative outcomes. Allen and colleagues showed that susceptibility to peer pressure in 13- and 14-year-olds was predictive of not only future response to peer pressure, but also a wider array of functioning.<ref name="AllenPorter20062">{{cite journal|last2=Porter|first2=Maryfrances R.|last3=McFarland|first3=F. Christy|year=2006|title=Leaders and followers in adolescent close friendships: Susceptibility to peer influence as a predictor of risky behavior, friendship instability, and depression|journal=Development and Psychopathology|volume=18|issue=1|pages=155–72|doi=10.1017/S0954579406060093|pmid=16478557|last1=Allen|first1=Joseph P.|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |author1-link=Joseph P. Allen (psychologist)|pmc=1557636}}</ref> For example, greater depression symptomatology, decreasing popularity, more sexual behavior, and externalizing behavior were greater for more susceptible teens. Of note, substance use was also predicted by peer pressure susceptibility such that greater susceptibility was predictive of greater alcohol and drug use.