Editing Organizational commitment (section)

== Model of commitment ==
Meyer and Allen's (1991) three-component model of commitment was created to argue that commitment has three different components that correspond with different psychological states. Meyer and Allen created this model for two reasons: first "aid in the interpretation of existing research" and second "to serve as a framework for future research".<ref name="Meyer2007">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z| title = A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment| journal = Human Resource Management Review| volume = 1| pages = 61–89| year = 1991| last1 = Meyer | first1 = J. P. | last2 = Allen | first2 = N. J. }}</ref> Their study was based mainly around previous studies of organizational commitment. 

Meyer and Allen's research indicated that there are three "mind sets" which can characterize an employee's commitment to the organization. Mercurio (2015) extended this model by reviewing the empirical and theoretical studies on organizational commitment. Mercurio posits that emotional, or affective commitment is the core essence of organizational commitment.<ref name="Mercurio 389–414">{{Cite journal|last=Mercurio|first=Zachary A.|date=2015-12-01|title=Affective Commitment as a Core Essence of Organizational Commitment An Integrative Literature Review|journal=Human Resource Development Review|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=389–414|doi=10.1177/1534484315603612|s2cid=142941516|issn=1534-4843}}</ref>

=== Affective commitment ===
Affective Commitment is defined as the employee's positive emotional attachment to the organization. Meyer and Allen pegged AC as the "desire" component of organizational commitment. An employee who is affectively committed strongly identifies with the goals of the organization and desires to remain a part of the organization. This employee commits to the organization because they "want to". 

This commitment can be influenced by many different demographic characteristics: age, tenure, sex, and education but these influences are neither strong nor consistent. The problem with these characteristics is that while they can be seen, they cannot be clearly defined. Meyer and Allen gave this example that "positive relationships between tenure and commitment maybe due to tenure-related differences in job status and quality"<ref name="Meyer2007" /> In developing this concept, Meyer and Allen drew largely on Mowday, Porter, and Steers's (2006)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/employeeorganiza0000mowd|url-access=registration|title=Employee-organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover|isbn=978-0-12-509370-5|last1=Mowday|first1=Richard T|last2=Porter|first2=Lyman W|last3=Steers|first3=Richard M|year=1982|location= New York|publisher= Academic Press}}</ref> concept of commitment, which in turn drew on earlier work by Kanter (1968).<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/2092438| jstor = 2092438| title = Commitment and Social Organization: A Study of Commitment Mechanisms in Utopian Communities| journal = American Sociological Review| volume = 33| issue = 4| pages = 499–517| year = 1968| last1 = Kanter | first1 = R. M. }}</ref> Mercurio (2015) stated that..."affective commitment was found to be an enduring, demonstrably indispensable, and central characteristic of organizational commitment".<ref name="Mercurio 389–414" />

=== Continuance commitment ===
Continuance commitment is the "need" component or the gains versus losses of working in an organization. 

"Side bets", or investments, are the gains and losses that may occur should an individual stay or leave an organization. An individual may commit to the organization because he/she perceives a high cost of losing organizational membership (cf. Becker's 1960 "side bet theory").<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1086/222820| title = Notes on the Concept of Commitment| journal = American Journal of Sociology| volume = 66| issue = 1| pages = 32–40| year = 1960|jstor=2773219| last1 = Becker | first1 = H. S. | s2cid = 46159417}}</ref> 

Things like [[Economic cost|economic costs]] (such as pension accruals) and social costs (friendship ties with co-workers) would be costs of losing organizational membership. But an individual doesn't see the positive costs as enough to stay with an organization they must also take into account the availability of alternatives (such as another organization), disrupt personal relationships, and other "side bets" that would be incurred from leaving their organization. The problem with this is that these "side bets" don't occur at once but that they "accumulate with age and tenure".<ref name="Meyer2007" />

=== Normative commitment ===
The individual commits to and remains with an organization because of feelings of obligation, the last component of organizational commitment. These feelings may derive from a strain on an individual before and after joining an organization. For example, the organization may have invested resources in training an employee who then feels a 'moral' obligation to put forth effort on the job and stay with the organization to 'repay the debt.' It may also reflect an internalized norm, developed before the person joins the organization through family or other socialization processes, that one should be loyal to one's organization. The employee stays with the organization because he/she "ought to". But generally if an individual invest a great deal they will receive "advanced rewards". 

Normative commitment is higher in organizations that value loyalty and systematically communicate the fact to employees with rewards, incentives and other strategies. Normative commitment in employees is also high where employees regularly see visible examples of the employer being committed to employee well-being. An employee with greater organizational commitment has a greater chance of contributing to organizational success and will also experience higher levels of job satisfaction. High levels of job satisfaction, in turn, reduces employee turnover and increases the organization's ability to recruit and retain talent. Meyer and Allen based their research in this area more on theoretical evidence rather than empirical, which may explain the lack of depth in this section of their study compared to the others. They drew off Wiener's (2005) <ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.5465/AMR.1982.4285349| title = Commitment in Organizations: A Normative View| journal = Academy of Management Review| volume = 7| issue = 3| pages = 418–428| year = 1982| last1 = Wiener | first1 = Y.}}</ref> research for this commitment component.

=== Critique to the three-component model ===
Since the model was made, there has been conceptual critique to what the model is trying to achieve. Specifically from three psychologists, Omar Solinger, Woody Olffen, and Robert Roe. To date, the three-component conceptual model has been regarded as the leading model for organizational commitment because it ties together three aspects of earlier commitment research (Becker, 2005; Buchanan, 2005; Kanter, 1968; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982; Salancik, 2004; Weiner, 2004; Weiner & Vardi, 2005). However, a collection of studies have shown that the model is not consistent with empirical findings. Solinger, Olffen, and Roe use a later model by Alice Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, Attitude-behavior Model (2004), to present that TCM combines different attitude phenomena. They have come to the conclusion that TCM is a model for predicting turnover.  In a sense the model describes why people should stay with the organization whether it is because they '''want to, need to, or ought to'''. The model appears to mix together an attitude toward a target, that being the organization, with an attitude toward a behavior, which is leaving or staying. They believe the studies should return to the original understanding of organizational commitment as an attitude toward the organization and measure it accordingly. Although the TCM is a good way to predict turnover, these psychologists do not believe it should be the general model. Because Eagly and Chaiken's model is so general, it seems that the TCM can be described as a specific subdivision of their model when looking at a general sense of organizational commitment. It becomes clear that affective commitment equals an attitude toward a target, while continuance and normative commitment are representing different concepts referring to anticipated behavioral outcomes, specifically staying or leaving. This observation backs up their conclusion that organizational commitment is perceived by TCM as combining different target attitudes and behavioral attitudes, which they believe to be both confusing and logically incorrect. The attitude-behavioral model can demonstrate explanations for something that would seem contradictory in the TCM. That is that affective commitment has stronger associations with relevant behavior and a wider range of behaviors, compared to normative and continuance commitment. Attitude toward a target (the organization) is obviously applicable to a wider range of behaviors than an attitude toward a specific behavior (staying). After their research, Sollinger, Olffen, and Roe believe Eagly and Chaiken's attitude-behavior model from 1993 would be a good alternative model to look at as a general organizational commitment predictor because of its approach at organizational commitment as a singular construct, which in turn would help predicting various behaviors beyond turnover.<ref>{{cite journal
 | pmid = 18211136
| year = 2008
| last1 = Solinger
| first1 = O. N.
| title = Beyond the three-component model of organizational commitment
| journal = Journal of Applied Psychology
| volume = 93
| issue = 1
| pages = 70–83
| last2 = Van Olffen
| first2 = W
| last3 = Roe
| first3 = R. A.
| doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.70
| url = https://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/portal/en/publications/beyond-the-threecomponent-model-of-organizational-commitment(35c302e4-3473-4409-932b-30f59cdf52b1).html
| type = Submitted manuscript
}}</ref>

=== A five component commitment model ===
More recently, scholars have proposed a five component model of commitment, though it has been developed in the context of product and service consumption. This model proposes habitual and forced commitment as two additional dimensions which are very germane in consumption settings. It seems, however, that habitual commitment or inertial may also become relevant in many job settings. People get habituated to a job—the routine, the processes, the cognitive schemas associated with a job can make people develop a latent commitment to the job—just as it may occur in a consumption setting. The paper—by Keiningham and colleagues also compared applications of the TCM in job settings and in consumption settings to develop additional insights.