Editing Northumbria (section)

==Kingdom (654–954)==
===Communities and divisions===
====Possible Celtic British origins====
The [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of Northumbria was originally two kingdoms divided approximately around the [[River Tees]]: [[Bernicia]] was to the north of the river and [[Deira]] to the south.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=44}}</ref> It is possible that both regions originated as native [[Celtic British]] kingdoms, which the [[Anglo-Saxon Settlement of Britain|Germanic settlers]] later conquered, although there is very little information about the infrastructure and culture of the British kingdoms themselves.<ref name="Rollason2003p81">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=81}}</ref> Much of the evidence for them comes from regional names that are British rather than Anglo-Saxon in origin. The names Deira and Bernicia are likely British in origin, for example, indicating that some British place names retained currency after the Anglo-Saxon migrations to Northumbria.{{efn|In addition to Bernicia and Deira, some other British place names are recorded for important Northumbrian locations. Northumbrian scholar [[Bede]] ({{circa|731}}) and Welsh ninth-century chronicler [[Nennius]] both provide British place names for centres of power. Nennius, for example, refers to the royal city of [[Bamburgh]] as Din Guaire.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|1969}} Book IV Chapter 19</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nennius|2005}} para 62</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=81}}</ref><ref name="Rollason2003p81"/>}} There is also some archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in the [[Cheviot Hills]], a hill fort at [[Yeavering]] Bell contains evidence that it was an important centre for first the British and later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-[[Ancient Rome|Roman]], dating back to the [[Iron Age]] at around the first century. In addition to signs of Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of British settlement. Moreover, Brian Hope-Taylor has traced the origins of the name Yeavering, which looks deceptively English, back to the British gafr from Bede's mention of a township called Gefrin in the same area.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope-Taylor|1983|pp=15–16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=83–84}}</ref> Yeavering continued to be an important political centre after the Anglo-Saxons began settling in the north, as King [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]] had a royal palace at Yeavering.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book II, Chapter 14</ref>

Overall, English place-names dominate the Northumbrian landscape, suggesting the prevalence of an Anglo-Saxon elite culture by the time that Bede – Anglo-Saxon England's most prominent historian – was writing in the eighth century.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008|p=93}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=57–64}}</ref> According to Bede, the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] were the predominant Germanic immigrants, who settled north of the Humber and gained political prominence during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book I, Chapter 15</ref> While the British natives may have partially assimilated into the Northumbrian political structure, relatively contemporary textual sources such as Bede's ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' depict relations between Northumbrians and the [[Celtic Britons|British]] as fraught.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=100}}</ref>

====Unification of Bernicia and Deira====
The Anglo-Saxon states of Bernicia and Deira were often in conflict before their eventual semi-permanent unification in 651. Political power in Deira was concentrated in the East Riding of [[Yorkshire]], which included [[York]], the North York Moors, and the Vale of York.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=45–48}}</ref> The political heartlands of Bernicia were the areas around Bamburgh and [[Lindisfarne]], [[Monkwearmouth]] and [[Jarrow]], and in [[Cumbria]], west of the [[Pennines]] in the area around [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=48–52}}</ref> The name that these two states eventually united under, Northumbria, might have been coined by Bede and made popular through his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''.<ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|p=74}}</ref>

Information on the early royal genealogies for Bernicia and Deira comes from Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' and Nennius' ''[[Historia Brittonum]]''. According to Nennius, the Bernician royal line begins with [[Ida of Bernicia|Ida]], son of [[Eoppa of Bernicia|Eoppa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nennius|2005}} para 57, 59</ref> Ida reigned for twelve years (beginning in 547) and was able to annex Bamburgh to Bernicia.<ref>{{harvnb|Nennius|2005}} para 59</ref> In Nennius' genealogy of Deira, a king named Soemil was the first to separate Bernicia and Deira, which could mean that he wrested the kingdom of Deira from the native British.<ref name="Yorke1990p79">{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|p=79}}</ref> The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king to make an appearance in Bede's {{Lang|la|Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum}} is [[Ælla of Deira|Ælla]], the father of the first Christian Northumbrian king [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book II, Chapter 1</ref>

A king of Bernicia, Ida's grandson [[Æthelfrith]], was the first ruler to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin to the court of King [[Rædwald of East Anglia]] in order to claim both kingdoms, but Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer Northumbria with Rædwald's aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book II, Chapter 12</ref><ref name="Rollason2003p7">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=7}}</ref> Edwin, who ruled from approximately 616 to 633, was one of the last kings of the Deiran line to reign over all of Northumbria. Oswald's brother [[Oswiu]] eventually succeeded him to the Northumbrian throne despite initial attempts on Deira's part to pull away again.<ref name="Rollason2003p7"/> The last independent king of Deira was [[Oswine of Deira|Oswine]]. He was murdered by Oswiu in 651, and Northumbria was thereafter united under Bernician rule.{{sfn|Holdsworth|2014|p=340}}

While violent conflicts between Bernicia and Deira played a significant part in determining which line ultimately gained supremacy in Northumbria, marriage alliances also helped bind these two territories together. [[Æthelfrith]] married Edwin's sister [[Acha of Deira|Acha]], although this marriage did little to prevent future squabbles between the brothers-in-law and their descendants. The second intermarriage was more successful, with [[Oswiu]] marrying [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]]'s daughter and his own cousin [[Eanflæd]] to produce [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria|Ecgfrith]], the beginning of the Northumbrian line. However, Oswiu had another relationship with an Irish woman named Fina which produced the problematic Aldfrith.<ref name="Rollason2003p7"/> In his ''Life and Miracles of St. [[Cuthbert]],'' Bede declares that Aldfrith, known as Fland among the Irish, was illegitimate and therefore unfit to rule.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bede |title=The Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert, Bishop of Lindisfarne |url=http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-cuthbert.asp |accessdate=23 March 2023 |website=Internet History Sourcebook |publisher=Fordham University: The Jesuit University of New York|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625103657/https://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-cuthbert.asp|archivedate=25 June 2016|url-status=dead|at=Chapter XXIV}}</ref>

====Northumbria and Norse settlement====
[[File:England 878.svg|thumb|150px|England in 878. The independent rump of the former Kingdom of Northumbria (yellow) was to the north of the Danelaw (pink).]]
The [[Viking activity in the British Isles|Viking invasions]] of the ninth century and the establishment of the [[Danelaw]] once again divided Northumbria. Although primarily recorded in the southern provinces of [[England]], the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]s (particularly the D and E recensions) provide some information on Northumbria's conflicts with [[Vikings]] in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. According to these chronicles, Viking raids began to affect Northumbria when a band attacked Lindisfarne in 793.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 793</ref> After this initial catastrophic blow, Viking raids in Northumbria were either sporadic for much of the early ninth century or evidence of them was lost.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=211}}</ref> However, in 865 the so-called [[Great Heathen Army]] landed in [[East Anglia]] and began a sustained campaign of conquest.<ref name="Rollason2003p212">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=212}}</ref><ref name="asc865">{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 865</ref> The Great Army fought in Northumbria in 866–867, striking [[York]] twice in less than one year. After the initial attack the Norse left to go north, leaving Kings Ælle and Osberht to recapture the city. The E recension of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests that Northumbria was particularly vulnerable at this time because the Northumbrians were once again fighting amongst themselves, deposing Osberht in favour of Ælle.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 866–867</ref> In the second raid, the Vikings killed Kings Ælle and Osberht whilst recapturing the city.<ref name="Rollason2003p212"/>

After King [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]] re-established his control of southern England, the Norse invaders settled into what came to be known as the Danelaw in the [[The Midlands|Midlands]], [[East Anglia]], and the southern part of Northumbria.<ref name="Rollason2003p212"/> In Northumbria, the Norse established the [[Kingdom of York]] whose boundaries were roughly the River Tees and the Humber, giving it approximately the same dimensions as Deira.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=212–213}}</ref> Although this kingdom fell to [[Hiberno-Norse]] colonisers in the 920s and was in constant conflict with the West-Saxon expansionists from the south, it survived until 954 when the last Scandinavian king Eric, who is usually identified as [[Eric Bloodaxe]], was driven out and eventually killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=270}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=213}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Downham|2004}} reconsiders the Northumbrian Viking king known as Eric and his perhaps tenuous relationship to the Eric Bloodaxe of the sagas.</ref>

In contrast, the Great Army was not as successful in conquering territory north of the River Tees. There were raids that extended into that area, but no sources mention lasting Norse occupation and there are very few [[Old norse language|Scandinavian]] place names to indicate significant Norse settlement in northern regions of Northumbria.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=213,244}}</ref> The political landscape of the area north of the Tees during the Viking conquest of Northumbria consisted of the Community of [[St. Cuthbert]] and the remnants of the English Northumbrian elites.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=244}}</ref> While the religious Community of St. Cuthbert "wandered" for a hundred years after [[Halfdan Ragnarsson]] attacked their original home of Lindisfarne in 875, The [[Historia de Sancto Cuthberto|History of St. Cuthbert]] indicates that they settled temporarily at [[Chester-le-Street]] between the years 875–883 on land granted to them by the Viking King of York, [[Guthred]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=246–257}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=319}}</ref> According to the twelfth-century account ''Historia Regum'', Guthred granted them this land in exchange for establishing him as king. The land extended from the Tees to the Tyne and anyone who fled there from either the north or the south would receive sanctuary for thirty-seven days, indicating that the Community of St. Cuthbert had some juridical autonomy. Based on their positioning and this right of sanctuary, this community probably acted as a buffer between the Norse in southern Northumbria and the Anglo-Saxons who continued to hold the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1885}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=183}}</ref>

North of the [[River Tyne|Tyne]], Northumbrians maintained partial political control in Bamburgh. The rule of kings continued in that area with [[Ecgberht I of Northumbria|Ecgberht I]] acting as regent around 867 and the kings [[Ricsige of Northumbria|Ricsige]] and [[Ecgberht II of Northumbria|Ecgberht II]] immediately following him.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=249}}</ref> According to twelfth-century historian [[Symeon of Durham]], Ecgberht I was a client-king for the Norse. The Northumbrians revolted against him in 872, deposing him in favour of Ricsige.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1885}} 867, 872</ref> Although the A and E recensions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' report that Halfdan was able to take control of Deira and take a raiding party north of the River Tyne to impose his rule on Bernicia in 874, after Halfdan's death ({{circa|877}}) the Norse had difficulty holding on to territory in northern Bernicia.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 874</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=181}}</ref> Ricsige and his successor Ecgberht were able to maintain an English presence in Northumbria. After the reign of Ecgberht II, [[Eadwulf II of Northumbria|Eadwulf]] "King of the North Saxons" (r. 890–912) succeeded him for control of Bamburgh, but after Eadwulf's death rulership of this area switched over to earls who were possible kinsmen or direct descendants of the royal Northumbrian house.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=249}} For the epithet, see also the [[Annals of Ulster]].</ref>

===Kings===
{{main|List of monarchs of Northumbria}}

====Æthelfrith (r. 593–616)====
{{main|Æthelfrith}}
[[Æthelfrith]] was the first Anglo-Saxon leader to hold the thrones of both [[Deira]] and [[Bernicia]],<ref>{{harvnb|Kirby|1991|pp=60–61}}</ref> and so he ruled over all the people north of the [[Humber]]. His rule was notable for his numerous victories over the [[British people|Britons]] and the [[Gaels]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book I chapter 34</ref>

====Edwin (r. 616–633)====
{{main|Edwin of Northumbria}}
[[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]], like Æthelfrith, was king of both Deira and Bernicia and ruled them from 616 to 633. Under his reign, the [[Isle of Man]] and the lands of [[Gwynedd]] in Northern Wales were incorporated into Northumbria. Edwin married [[Æthelburh of Kent|Æthelburh]], a Christian Princess from [[Kent]] in 625. He converted to Christianity two years later after a period of heavy consideration and after consulting numerous advisors.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} II.9–14</ref> Edwin fell in battle in 633 against [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan|Cadwallon of Gwynedd]] and the pagan [[Penda of Mercia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=124}}</ref> He was venerated as a saint and martyr after his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} II.20, III.24</ref>

====Oswald (r. 634–642)====
{{main|Oswald of Northumbria}}
Oswald was a king of Bernicia, who regained the kingdom of Deira after defeating [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan|Cadwallon]] in 634. Oswald then ruled Northumbria until his death in 642. A devout Christian, Oswald worked tirelessly to spread the faith in his traditionally pagan lands. It was during his reign that the monastery at [[Lindisfarne]] was created. Oswald fell in the Battle of [[Maserfield]] against [[Penda of Mercia]] in 642 but his influence endured because, like Edwin, Oswald was venerated as a saint after his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} III.1–13</ref>

====Oswiu (r. 642–670)====
{{main|Oswiu}}
Oswiu was the brother of Oswald and succeeded him after the latter's defeat in [[Maserfield]]. Oswiu succeeded where Edwin and Oswald failed as, in 655, he slew Penda during the [[Battle of the Winwaed]], making him the first Northumbrian King also to control the kingdom of [[Mercia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|pp=78–9}}</ref> During his reign, he presided over the [[Synod of Whitby]], an attempt to reconcile religious differences between Roman and Celtic Christianity, in which he eventually backed Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|}}</ref> Oswiu died from illness in 670 and divided Deira and Bernicia between two of his sons.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} IV.5</ref> His son [[Aldfrith of Northumbria]] took over the throne upon his death.

==== Eadberht (r. 738–758) ====
[[Eadberht of Northumbria]], the brother of [[Ecgbert of York|Ecgbert]], [[Archbishop of York]], is seen by some historians as a return to the imperial ambitions of seventh-century Northumbria and his reign may represent a period of economic prosperity. He faced internal opposition from rival dynasties and at least two actual or potential rivals were killed during his reign. In 758 he abdicated in favour of his son [[Oswulf of Northumbria|Oswulf]] and became a monk at York. Oswulf was murdered the next year and [[Æthelwald Moll of Northumbria]] seized the throne, which he occupied for seven years until he was deposed by [[Alhred]]. [[Æthelred I of Northumbria]], son of Æthelwald, reigned for 10 interrupted years to 796.

====Halfdan Ragnarsson (r. 876–877)====
{{main|Halfdan Ragnarsson}}
Halfdan Ragnarsson was a Viking leader of the Great Heathen Army which invaded England in 865.<ref>{{harvnb|Venning|2014|p=132}}</ref> He allegedly wanted revenge against Northumbria for the death of his father, who was supposedly killed by [[Ælla of Northumbria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Munch|Olsen|1926|pp=245–251}}</ref> While he himself only ruled Northumbria directly for about a year in 876, he placed [[Ecgberht I of Northumbria|Ecgberht]] on the throne as a client-king, who ruled from 867 to 872.<ref>{{harvnb|Stevenson|1885|p=489}}</ref> Halfdan was killed in Ireland in 877 whilst trying to regain control over [[Early Scandinavian Dublin|Dyflin (Dublin)]], a land he had ruled since 875. There were no further Viking kings in Northumbria until [[Guthred|Guthfrith]] took over in 883.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidge|Blair|Keynes|Scragg|2013|p=526}}</ref>

====Æthelstan of Wessex (r. 927–939)====
{{main|Æthelstan}}
Æthelstan ruled as [[King of the Anglo-Saxons]] from 924 to 927 and [[King of the English]] from 927 to 939. The shift in his title reflects that in 927, Æthelstan conquered the Viking Kingdom of [[York]], previously part of the Northumbrian Kingdom.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Foot|2011|p=40}}</ref> His reign was quite prosperous and saw great strides in many fields such as law and economics, but was also characterized by frequent clashes with the [[Scottish people|Scots]] and the Vikings.<ref name="auto"/> Æthelstan died in 939, which led to the Vikings' retaking of York. Æthelstan is widely considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings for his efforts to consolidate the English kingdom and the prosperity his reign brought.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturluson|1964|pp=42–43}}</ref>

====Eric of York (r. 947–948, 952–954)====
{{main|Eric Bloodaxe}}
In the early twentieth century, historians identified Eric of York with the Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe, although more recent scholarship has challenged this association.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} He held two short terms as King of Northumbria, from 947 to 948 and 952 to 954.{{efn|Although the Northumbrian king Eric was conflated with King Eric Bloodaxe of Norway in Icelandic sagas, [[Clare Downham]] and others have recently argued that the two were separate people. For a discussion of this shift in identification, see Downham, Clare 2004 "Eric Bloodaxe – Axed? The Mystery of the Last Scandinavian King of York", ''Medieval Scandinavia'', vol. 14, pp. 51–77}} Historical documentation on his reign is scarce, but it seems Eric pushed out the joint English-Viking rulers of Northumbria in 947,<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} MS D 940</ref> who then regained the land in 948 or 949. Eric took back the throne in 952, only to be deposed again in 954.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} MS D & E 954</ref> Eric was the last Viking king of Northumbria and his authority only extended to the southern [[Scandinavian York|kingdom of York]]. In 954 he was murdered, allegedly with the connivance of [[Oswulf I of Bamburgh|Oswulf]], the Anglo-Saxon ruler of the northern Northumbrian territory of Bamburgh.{{sfn|Rollason|2003|pp=265-266}}

====Eadred of Wessex (r. 946–954)====
{{main|Eadred}}
King Eadred was the half-brother of [[Æthelstan]] and full brother of [[Edmund I|Edmund]], all of whom were sons of King [[Edward the Elder]]. Eadred inherited the rule of Northumbria, but like Edmund lost it soon afterwards. When Eadred finally regained control in 954, he appointed Oswulf earl of the whole of Northumbria.{{sfn|Rollason|2003|pp=266-267}}

===Politics and war===
{{main|List of monarchs of Northumbria}}
Between 737&nbsp;and 806, Northumbria had ten kings,<ref>{{harvnb|Petts|Turner|2011|pp=14–27}}</ref> all of whom were murdered, deposed, or exiled or became monks. Between [[Oswiu]], the first king of Northumbria in 651, and [[Eric Bloodaxe]], the last king of Northumbria in 954, there were forty-five kings, meaning that the average length of reign during the entire history of Northumbria is only six and a half years. Of the twenty-five kings before the Danish rule of Northumbria, only four died of natural causes. Of those that did not abdicate for a holy life, the rest were either deposed, exiled, or murdered. Kings during the Danish rule of Northumbria (see [[Danelaw]]) were often either kings of a larger North Sea or Danish empire, or were installed rulers.<ref>{{harvnb|Downham|2007|pp=40}}</ref>

Succession in Northumbria was hereditary,<ref>{{harvnb|Petts|Turner|2011|p=27}}</ref> which left princes whose fathers died before they could come of age particularly susceptible to assassination and usurpation. A noteworthy example of this phenomenon is Osred, whose father Aldfrith died in 705, leaving the young boy to rule. He survived one assassination attempt early in his rule, but fell victim to another assassin at the age of nineteen. During his reign he was adopted by Wilfrid, a powerful bishop.<ref>{{Harvnb|Higham|1993|pp=81–90}}</ref> Ecclesiastical influence in the royal court was not an unusual phenomenon in Northumbria, and usually was most visible during the rule of a young or inexperienced king. Similarly, ealdorman, or royal advisors, had periods of increased or decreased power in Northumbria, depending on who was ruling at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Fairless|1994|pp= 10–16}}</ref>

Warfare in Northumbria before the Danish period largely consisted of rivalries with the [[Picts]] to the north. The Northumbrians were successful against the Picts until the [[Battle of Dun Nechtain]] in 685, which halted their expansion north and established a border between the two kingdoms.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Parsons|first=Julie|date=4 May 2002|title=The First Battle for Scottish Independence: The Battle of Dunnichen, A.D.&nbsp;685. |type=MA thesis |publisher=East Tennessee State University |url=https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/657}}</ref> Warfare during the Danish period was dominated by warfare between the Northumbrians and other English Kingdoms.