Editing Northrop B-2 Spirit (section)

==Development==

===Origins===
By the mid-1970s, military aircraft designers had learned of a new method to avoid missiles and interceptors, known today as "[[Stealth aircraft|stealth]]". The concept was to build an aircraft with an [[airframe]] that deflected or absorbed [[radar]] signals so that little was reflected back to the radar unit. An aircraft having radar stealth characteristics would be able to fly nearly undetected and could be attacked only by weapons and systems not relying on radar. Although other detection measures existed, such as human observation, [[Infrared search and track|infrared scanners]], and [[Acoustic location|acoustic locators]], their relatively short detection range or poorly developed technology allowed most aircraft to fly undetected, or at least untracked, especially at night.<ref>Rao, G.A. and S.P. Mahulikar. "Integrated review of stealth technology and its role in airpower". ''Aeronautical Journal'', v. 106 (1066), 2002, pp. 629–641.</ref>

In 1974, [[DARPA]] requested information from U.S. aviation firms about the largest [[radar cross-section]] of an aircraft that would remain effectively invisible to radars.<ref>Crickmore and Crickmore 2003, p. 9.</ref> Initially, [[Northrop Corporation|Northrop]] and [[McDonnell Douglas]] were selected for further development. [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]] had experience in this field with the development of the [[Lockheed A-12]] and [[Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird|SR-71]], which included several stealthy features, notably its canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall surface finish in [[Radiation-absorbent material|radar-absorbing paint]]. A key improvement was the introduction of computer models used to predict the radar reflections from flat surfaces where collected data drove the design of a "faceted" aircraft. Development of the first such designs started in 1975 with the ''[[Lockheed Have Blue|Have Blue]]'', a model Lockheed built to test the concept.<ref>[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/Stealth_aircraft/Tech31.htm "Stealth Aircraft."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721035221/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/Stealth_aircraft/Tech31.htm |date=21 July 2011}} ''U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission'', 2003. Retrieved 5 November 2012.</ref>

Plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when [[DARPA]] started the Experimental Survivability Testbed project. Northrop and Lockheed were awarded contracts in the first round of testing. Lockheed received the sole award for the second test round in April 1976 leading to the ''Have Blue'' program and eventually the [[F-117]] stealth attack aircraft.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffin|Kinnu|2007|pp=14–15}}</ref> Northrop also had a classified technology demonstration aircraft, the [[Northrop Tacit Blue|Tacit Blue]] in development in 1979 at [[Area 51]]. It developed stealth technology, LO (low observables), [[fly-by-wire]], curved surfaces, composite materials, [[Signals intelligence|electronic intelligence]], and Battlefield Surveillance Aircraft Experimental. The stealth technology developed from the program was later incorporated into other operational aircraft designs, including the B-2 stealth bomber.<ref>''The integrator'', Northrop Grumman (newspaper), Vol. 8, No. 12; 30 June 2006, p. 8. author: Carol Ilten.</ref>

===ATB program===
By 1976, these programs had progressed to a position in which a long-range strategic stealth bomber appeared viable. President [[Jimmy Carter]] became aware of these developments during 1977, and it appears to have been one of the major reasons the B-1 was canceled.<ref>{{harvnb|Withington|2006|p=7}}</ref> Further studies were ordered in early 1978, by which point the ''Have Blue'' platform had flown and proven the concepts. During the [[1980 United States presidential election|1980 presidential election]] campaign in 1979, [[Ronald Reagan]] repeatedly stated that Carter was weak on defense and used the B-1 as a prime example. In response, on 22 August 1980 the [[Carter administration]] publicly disclosed that the [[United States Department of Defense]] was working to develop stealth aircraft, including a bomber.<ref name=goodall>Goodall 1992, {{page needed|date=August 2012}}</ref>

[[File:B2 bomber initial rollout ceremony 1988.jpg|thumb|left|The B-2's first public display in 1988 at Palmdale, California: in front of the B-2 is a star shape formed with five B-2 silhouettes|alt=Front view of tailless aircraft parked in front of building. On the building face is a blue and red rectangular flag. A star-shaped artwork is on the taxiway in front of aircraft.]]
The Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) program began in 1979.<ref name=Pace_p20-27>{{harvnb|Pace|1999|pp=20–27}}</ref> Full development of the [[black project]] followed, funded under the code name "[[Aurora (aircraft)|Aurora]]".<ref name=Rich/> After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was narrowed to the Northrop/[[Boeing]] and Lockheed/[[Rockwell International|Rockwell]] teams with each receiving a study contract for further work.<ref name="Pace_p20-27" /> Both teams used [[flying wing]] designs.<ref name="Rich" /> The Northrop proposal was code named "Senior Ice", and the Lockheed proposal code named "[[Lockheed Senior Peg|Senior Peg]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_bombers/newb2_1.html|title=Northrop B-2A Spirit|website=joebaugher.com|access-date=12 January 2015|archive-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120041317/http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_bombers/newb2_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Northrop had prior experience developing the [[Northrop YB-35|YB-35]] and [[Northrop YB-49|YB-49]] flying wing aircraft.<ref>{{harvnb|Donald|2003|p=13}}</ref> The Northrop design was larger and had curved surfaces while the Lockheed design was faceted and included a small tail.<ref name=Rich>{{harvnb|Rich|Janos|1996}}{{page needed|date=August 2012}}</ref> In 1979, designer [[Hal Markarian]] produced a sketch of the aircraft that bore considerable similarities to the final design.<ref>Sweetman 1991, pp. 21, 30.</ref> The USAF originally planned to procure 165 ATB bombers.<ref name="Nat_Museum_B-2_factsheet1"/>

The Northrop team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.<ref name=Pace_p20-27/><ref name=Spick_p339>{{harvnb|Spick|2000|p=339}}</ref> The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from [[Altitude|high-altitude]] to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redesign delayed the B-2's first flight by two years and added about US$1&nbsp;billion to the program's cost.<ref name=goodall/> An estimated US$23&nbsp;billion was secretly spent for [[research and development]] on the B-2 by 1989.<ref>Van Voorst, Bruce. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090821005144/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958256,00.html?promoid=googlep "The Stealth Takes Wing."] ''Time'', 31 July 1989. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] engineers and scientists helped assess the mission effectiveness of the aircraft under a five-year [[Classified information|classified]] contract during the 1980s.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffin|Kinnu|2007|pp=ii–v}}</ref> ATB technology was also fed into the [[Advanced Tactical Fighter]] program, which would result in the [[Lockheed YF-22]] and [[Northrop YF-23]], and later the [[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|Lockheed Martin F-22]]. Northrop was the B-2's prime contractor; major subcontractors included [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing]], [[Hughes Aircraft]] (now [[Raytheon]]), [[GE Aviation|GE]], and [[Vought Aircraft Industries|Vought Aircraft]].<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet" />

===Secrecy and espionage===
[[File:B-2 first flight 071201-F-9999J-034.jpg|thumb|right|The B-2's first public flight in 1989|alt=Top view of triangular aircraft, with sawtooth trailing edge, in flight over desert]]

During its design and development, the Northrop B-2 program was a [[black project]]; all program personnel needed a secret clearance.<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzQPIlXe2H0|title=YouTube|via=YouTube|access-date=5 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712052753/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzQPIlXe2H0|archive-date=12 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Still, it was less closely held than the Lockheed F-117 program; more people in the federal government knew about the B-2, and more information about the project was available. Both during development and in service, considerable effort has been devoted to maintaining the security of the B-2's design and technologies. Staff working on the B-2 in most, if not all, capacities need a level of special-access clearance and undergo extensive background checks carried out by a special branch of the USAF.<ref>Vartaebedian, Ralph. [https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/6359225.html?dids=6359225:6359225&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+16%2C+1993&author=Vartaebedian%2C+Ralph&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=Defense+worker+loses+job+over+his+ties+to+India&pqatl=google "Defense worker loses job over his ties to India".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107225049/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/6359225.html?dids=6359225:6359225&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+16%2C+1993&author=Vartaebedian%2C+Ralph&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=Defense+worker+loses+job+over+his+ties+to+India&pqatl=google |date=7 November 2012}} ''Los Angeles Times'', 16 February 1993.</ref>

A former Ford automobile assembly plant in [[Pico Rivera, California]], was acquired and heavily rebuilt; the plant's employees were sworn to secrecy. To avoid suspicion, components were typically purchased through [[front company|front companies]], military officials would visit out of uniform, and staff members were routinely subjected to [[polygraph]] examinations. Nearly all information on the program was kept from the [[Government Accountability Office]] (GAO) and members of Congress until the mid-1980s.<ref>Atkinson, Rick. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130516030051/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1216253.html "Unraveling Stealth's 'Black World';Questions of Cost and Mission Arise Amid Debate Over Secrecy Series: Project Senior C.J.; The Story Behind The B-2 Bomber Series Number: 2/3."] ''The Washington Post'', 9 October 1989.</ref>

The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988 at [[United States Air Force Plant 42]] in [[Palmdale, California]], where it was assembled. This viewing was heavily restricted, and guests were not allowed to see the rear of the B-2. However, ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology|Aviation Week]]'' editors found that there were no airspace restrictions above the presentation area and took aerial photographs of the aircraft's secret rear section<ref name="Pace_p29-36" /> with suppressed engine exhausts.<ref name=B-2_Rollout_story>{{Cite web |last=Norris |first=Guy |date=2022-12-02 |title=The Story Behind Aviation Week's B-2 Rollout Photo Scoop |url=https://aviationweek.com/defense-space/aircraft-propulsion/story-behind-aviation-weeks-b-2-rollout-photo-scoop |access-date= |website=aviationweek.com}}</ref> The B-2's (s/n {{USAF serial|82|1066}} / AV-1) first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale to [[Edwards Air Force Base]].<ref name="Pace_p29-36">Pace 1999, pp. 29–36.</ref>

In 1984, Northrop employee [[Thomas Patrick Cavanagh]] was arrested for attempting to sell classified information from the Pico Rivera factory to the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>AP. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1DB1231F937A15755C0A961948260 "Stealth bomber classified documents missing."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815025039/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/24/us/no-headline-844687.html |date=15 August 2022}} ''The New York Times'', 24 June 1987. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> Cavanagh was sentenced to life in prison in 1985 but released on parole in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/|title=Thomas Patrick Cavanaugh|work=Locate a Federal Inmate|publisher=Federal Bureau of Prisons|access-date=5 September 2023|archive-date=29 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129150019/https://www.bop.gov/inmateloc/|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2005, [[Noshir Gowadia]], a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested for selling classified information to China.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070222093416/http://honolulu.fbi.gov/pressrel/2005/goodwin102605.htm "Press Release."] ''FBI Honolulu''. Retrieved:: 1 December 2010.</ref> Gowadia was convicted and sentenced to 32 years in prison.<ref>Foster, Peter. [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/8280233/Engineer-jailed-for-selling-US-stealth-bomber-technology-to-China.html "Engineer jailed for selling US stealth bomber technology to China."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703142231/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/8280233/Engineer-jailed-for-selling-US-stealth-bomber-technology-to-China.html |date=3 July 2017}} ''The Telegram'', 24 January 2011.</ref>

===Program costs and procurement===
A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s but was later reduced to 75.<ref name=Pace_p75-76>{{harvnb|Pace|1999|pp=75–76}}</ref> By the early 1990s the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union dissolved]], effectively eliminating the Spirit's primary [[Cold War]] mission. Under budgetary pressures and Congressional opposition, in his 1992 [[State of the Union]] address, President [[George H. W. Bush]] announced B-2 production would be limited to 20 aircraft.<ref>[http://www.c-span.org/executive/transcript.asp?cat=current_event&code=bush_admin&year=1992 "President George H. Bush's State of the Union Address."] ''c-span.org'', 28 January 1992. Retrieved 13 September 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824040054/http://www.c-span.org/executive/transcript.asp?cat=current_event&code=bush_admin&year=1992 |date=24 August 2010}}</ref> In 1996, however, the [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton administration]], though originally committed to ending production of the bombers at 20 aircraft, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a [[prototype]] test model, to Block 30 fully operational status at a cost of nearly $500&nbsp;million (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=500000000|start_year=1996}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}).<ref>Graham, Bradley. "US to add one B-2 plane to 20 plane fleet." ''The Washington Post'', 22 March 1996, p. A20.</ref> In 1995, Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a [[flyaway cost]] of $566&nbsp;million each.<ref name=Ency_Mod_Mil>Eden 2004, pp. 350–353.</ref>

The program was the subject of public controversy for its cost to American taxpayers. In 1996, the GAO disclosed that the USAF's B-2 bombers "will be, by far, the costliest bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis", costing over three times as much as the [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1B]] (US$9.6&nbsp;million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H (US$6.8&nbsp;million annually). In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance. Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the B-1B are 53 and 60 hours, respectively, for each hour of flight. A key reason for this cost is the provision of air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bomber's {{convert|172|ft|m|abbr=on}} wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircraft's stealth properties, particularly its "low-observable" stealth skins.<ref>Capaccio, Tony. "The B-2's Stealthy Skins Need Tender, Lengthy Care." ''Defense Week'', 27 May 1997, p. 1.</ref><ref>''US General Accounting Office'' September 1996, pp. 53, 56.</ref> Maintenance costs are about $3.4&nbsp;million per month for each aircraft.<ref>[http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htairfo/articles/20100614.aspx "The Gold Plated Hangar Queen Survives."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617041312/http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htairfo/articles/20100614.aspx |date=17 June 2010}} ''Strategyworld.com'', 14 June 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2011.</ref> An August 1995 GAO report disclosed that the B-2 had trouble operating in heavy rain, as rain could damage the aircraft's stealth coating, causing procurement delays until an adequate protective coating could be found. In addition, the B-2's terrain-following/terrain-avoidance radar had difficulty distinguishing rain from other obstacles, rendering the subsystem inoperable during rain.<ref>Murphy, Robert D., Michael J. Hazard, Jeffrey T. Hunter, and James F. Dinwiddie. ''B-2 Bomber: Status of Cost, Development, and Production''. No. GAO/NSIAD-95-164. General Accounting Office Washington, DC. National Security and International Affairs Division. August 1995, pp. 16, 20</ref> However a subsequent report in October 1996 noted that the USAF had made some progress in resolving the issues with the radar via software fixes and hoped to have these fixes undergoing tests by the spring of 1997.<ref>''US General Accounting Office'', October 1996, pp. 4, 23</ref>

The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6&nbsp;million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737&nbsp;million in 1997 dollars (equivalent to US${{inflation|US-GDP|0.737|1997|r=3}}&nbsp;billion in 2021{{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}}), based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48&nbsp;billion.<ref name=Gao/> The procurement cost per aircraft, as detailed in GAO reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929&nbsp;million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.<ref name=Gao/>

The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75&nbsp;billion in 1997 dollars (equivalent to US${{inflation|US-GDP|44.75|1997}}&nbsp;billion in 2021{{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}}). This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13&nbsp;billion per aircraft.<ref name=Gao/> The B-2 may cost up to $135,000 per flight hour to operate in 2010, which is about twice that of the B-52 and B-1.<ref name="axe20120326">Axe, David. [https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/03/why-cant-the-air-force-build-an-affordable-plane/254998/ "Why Can't the Air Force Build an Affordable Plane?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423153606/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/03/why-cant-the-air-force-build-an-affordable-plane/254998/ |date=23 April 2017}} ''The Atlantic'', 26 March 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.</ref><ref name="FlightglobalUSAirForceCombatFleetsTrueOperationalCostsRevealed">{{cite news|last1=Trimble|first1=Stephen|title=US Air Force combat fleet's true operational costs revealed|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/blogs/the-dewline/2011/08/exclusive-us-air-force-combat.html|url-status=dead|access-date=1 July 2012|work=The DEW Line|date=26 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020092809/http://www.flightglobal.com/blogs/the-dewline/2011/08/exclusive-us-air-force-combat.html|archive-date=20 October 2012}}</ref>

===Opposition===
In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800&nbsp;million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to end the project. Opposition in committee and in Congress was mostly broad and bipartisan, with Congressmen [[Ron Dellums]] (D-CA), [[John Kasich]] (R-OH), and [[John G. Rowland]] (R-CT) authorizing the motion to end the project—as well as others in the Senate, including [[Jim Exon]] (D-NE) and [[John McCain]] (R-AZ) also opposing the project.<ref name=Schmitt>Schmitt, Eric. [https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/14/us/key-senate-backer-of-stealth-bomber-sees-it-in-jeopardy.html?pagewanted=1 "Key Senate Backer of Stealth Bomber Sees It in Jeopardy."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306122801/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/14/us/key-senate-backer-of-stealth-bomber-sees-it-in-jeopardy.html?pagewanted=1 |date=6 March 2016}} ''The New York Times'', 14 September 1991. Retrieved 23 July 2009.</ref> Dellums and Kasich, in particular, worked together from 1989 through the early 1990s to limit production to 21 aircraft and were ultimately successful.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Torry |first1=Jack |last2=Wehrman |first2=Jessica |title=Kasich still touts opposition to stealth bomber |url=https://www.dispatch.com/article/20150706/NEWS/307069768 |work=Columbus Dispatch |access-date=13 April 2020 |date=6 July 2015 |archive-date=25 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025031202/https://www.dispatch.com/article/20150706/NEWS/307069768 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The escalating cost of the B-2 program and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar<ref name=Schmitt/> were among factors that drove opposition to continue the program. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7&nbsp;billion to $8&nbsp;billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair [[Les Aspin]] (D-WI) said "won't fly financially".<ref name=Sorenson_p168>{{harvnb|Sorenson|1995|p=168}}</ref> In 1990, the Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the [[Aircraft flight control system|flight control system]]; it was also found that redesign work was required to reduce the risk of damage to engine fan blades by bird ingestion.<ref>"Moisture in sensors led to stealth bomber crash, Air Force report says." ''Kansas City Star'', 5 June 2008.</ref>

In time, several prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including Senator [[John Kerry]] (D-MA), who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991, and 1992. By 1992, Bush had called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.<ref>[http://www.factcheck.org/zell_millers_attack_on_kerry_a_little.html "Zell Miller's Attack on Kerry: A Little Out Of Date."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714102157/http://www.factcheck.org/zell_millers_attack_on_kerry_a_little.html |date=14 July 2007}} ''FactCheck.org'', 4 October 2004. Retrieved 26 October 2004.</ref> In October 1995, former [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force]], [[Michael E. Ryan|General Mike Ryan]], and former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General [[John Shalikashvili]], strongly recommended against Congressional action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft,<ref>Bender, Brian and John Robinson. "More Stealth Bombers Mean Less Combat Power". ''Defense Daily'', 5 August 1997, p. 206.</ref> and that the military had greater priorities in spending a limited budget.<ref>''US General Accounting Office'' September 1996, p. 70.</ref>

Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional aircraft would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the [[Congressional Budget Office]] (CBO) and its Director of National Security Analysis found that additional B-2s would reduce the cost of expended munitions by less than US$2&nbsp;billion in 1995 dollars during the first two weeks of a conflict, in which the USAF predicted bombers would make their greatest contribution; this was a small fraction of the US$26.8&nbsp;billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that the CBO projected for an additional 20 B-2s.<ref>''US General Accounting Office'' September 1996, p. 72.</ref>

In 1997, as [[Ranking Member]] of the [[U.S. House Committee on Armed Services|House Armed Services Committee]] and National Security Committee, Congressman [[Ron Dellums]] (D-CA), a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers to the existing 21 aircraft; the amendment was narrowly defeated.<ref name=Amendment>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/970623-b2.htm "Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409000713/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/970623-b2.htm |date=9 April 2015}} ''fas.org'', 23 June 1997.</ref> Nonetheless, Congress did not approve funding for additional B-2s.

===Further developments===
Several upgrade packages have been applied to the B-2. In July 2008, the B-2's onboard computing architecture was extensively redesigned; it now incorporates a new integrated [[Processor (computing)|processing unit]] that communicates with systems throughout the aircraft via a newly installed [[fiber optic]] network; a new version of the operational flight program software was also developed, with [[legacy code]] converted from the [[JOVIAL]] programming language to standard [[C (programming language)|C]].<ref>McKinney, Brooks. [http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=145810 "Air Force Completes Preliminary Design Review of New B-2 Bomber Computer Architecture."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521002050/http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=145810 |date=21 May 2010}} ''Northrop Grumman'', 7 July 2008. Retrieved 8 June 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.semanticdesigns.com/Products/Services/NorthropGrummanB2.html "Semantic Designs Aligns with Northrop Grumman to Modernize B-2 Spirit Bomber Software Systems"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909005707/http://www.semanticdesigns.com/Products/Services/NorthropGrummanB2.html |date=9 September 2018}}. ''Semantic Designs''. Retrieved 8 June 2011.</ref> Updates were also made to the weapon control systems to enable strikes upon moving targets, such as ground vehicles.<ref>McKinney, Brooks. [http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/90827/b_2-upgrade-adds-mobile-target-engagement.html "Northrop Grumman Adding Mobile Targets to B-2 Bomber Capabilities."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812052653/http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/90827/b_2-upgrade-adds-mobile-target-engagement.html |date=12 August 2018}} ''Northrop Grumman'', 7 February 2008. Retrieved 29 October 2009.</ref>

[[File:B2 silhouette.JPG|thumb|B-2 from below]]
On 29 December 2008, USAF officials awarded a US$468&nbsp;million contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radars.<ref>[https://www.af.mil/News/story/id/123129776/ "B-2 radar modernization program contract awarded."] ''US Air Force'', 30 December 2008. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> Changing the radar's frequency was required as the [[United States Department of Commerce]] had sold that radio spectrum to another operator.<ref>Warwick, Graham. [http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/UPGR12308.xml&headline=USAF%20Awards%20B-2%20Radar%20Upgrade%20Production&channel=defense "USAF Awards B-2 Radar Upgrade Production."]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} ''Aviation Week'', 30 December 2008. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> In July 2009, it was reported that the B-2 had successfully passed a major USAF audit.<ref>Jennings, Gareth. [http://www.janes.com/news/defence/jdw/jdw090724_2_n.shtml "B-2 passes modernisation milestones."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731232154/http://www.janes.com/news/defence/jdw/jdw090724_2_n.shtml |date=31 July 2009}} ''Janes'', 24 July 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> In 2010, it was made public that the [[Air Force Research Laboratory]] had developed a new material to be used on the part of the wing trailing edge subject to engine exhaust, replacing existing material that quickly degraded.<ref>[http://defense-update.com/wp/20101119_b2_hte.html "New Composite to Improve B-2 Durability."] ''Defense-Update'', 19 November 2010. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128213955/http://defense-update.com/wp/20101119_b2_hte.html |date=28 November 2010}}</ref>

In July 2010, political analyst Rebecca Grant speculated that when the B-2 becomes unable to reliably penetrate enemy defenses, the [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II]] may take on its strike/[[Air interdiction|interdiction]] mission, carrying [[B61 nuclear bomb]]s as a tactical bomber.<ref>Grant, Rebecca. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20101207023456/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2010/July%202010/0710nato.aspx "Nukes for NATO."]}} ''Air Force Magazine'', July 2010.</ref> However, in March 2012, [[The Pentagon]] announced that a $2&nbsp;billion, 10-year-long modernization of the B-2 fleet was to begin. The main area of improvement would be replacement of outdated avionics and equipment.<ref name="kelley insider">Kelley, Michael. [http://articles.businessinsider.com/2012-03-28/news/31247799_1_b-2s-whiteman-air-force-base-stealth-bombers "The Air Force Announced It's Upgrading The One Plane It Needs To Bomb Iran."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212050635/http://articles.businessinsider.com/2012-03-28/news/31247799_1_b-2s-whiteman-air-force-base-stealth-bombers |date=12 December 2012}} ''Business Insider'', 28 March 2012.</ref> Continued modernization efforts likely have continued in secret, as alluded to by a B-2 commander from [[Whiteman Air Force Base]] in April 2021, possibly indicating offensive weapons capability against threatening air defenses and aircraft. He stated: {{blockquote |text=without getting into specifics, and without getting into things that we frankly just don't discuss in open channels, I will tell you that our current bomber fleet, and this is all of them, we use some pretty innovative ways to integrate modern weapons capabilities to have us both maintain and increase our survivability. And for the B-2 specifically, the expansion of some of our strike capabilities allow us to increase our survivability beyond the fighter escort realm. Now the B-2 fleet is continuing to do that technological advancement, and that's enabled us to expand our strike capabilities, as well. Although we've been around for over 30 years, there's a lot of life left in this platform, and up until the B-21 is well on the scene and doing its job, this aircraft will continue to be at the forefront of our country and our nation's defense... and with these, and continued innovative upgrades, and weapons system capabilities, we will continue to do that until the last jet flies off the ramp into retirement.<ref>Mitchell Institute Aerospace Advantage Podcast [https://mitchellaerospacepower.org/episode-18-flying-and-fighting-in-the-b-2-americas-stealth-bomber/ "Flying and Fighting in the B-2: America’s Stealth Bomber"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804180843/https://mitchellaerospacepower.org/episode-18-flying-and-fighting-in-the-b-2-americas-stealth-bomber/ |date=4 August 2021}} ''Mitchell Institute'', 11 April 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.</ref>}}

It was reported in 2011 that The Pentagon was evaluating an unmanned stealth bomber, characterized as a "mini-B-2", as a potential replacement in the near future.<ref>[http://www.uasvision.com/2011/05/24/pentagon-wants-unmanned-stealth-bomber-to-replace-b-2/ "Pentagon Wants Unmanned Stealth Bomber to Replace B-2."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114162040/http://www.uasvision.com/2011/05/24/pentagon-wants-unmanned-stealth-bomber-to-replace-b-2/ |date=14 January 2012}} ''Los Angeles Times'' via ''uasvision.com'', 24 March 2011.</ref> In 2012, USAF Chief of Staff General [[Norton Schwartz]] stated the B-2's 1980s-era stealth technologies would make it less survivable in future contested airspaces, so the USAF is to proceed with the [[Next-Generation Bomber]] despite overall budget cuts.<ref>Schogol, Jeff. [https://archive.today/20130121151525/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20120229/DEFREG02/302290005/Schwartz-Defends-Cost-USAF-8217-s-Next-Gen-Bomber?odyssey=tab |topnews|text|FRONTPAGE "Schwartz Defends Cost of USAF's Next-Gen Bomber"] . ''Defense News''. 29 February 2012.</ref> In 2012 projections, it was estimated that the Next-Generation Bomber would have an overall cost of $55&nbsp;billion.<ref>Less, Eloise. [http://www.businessinsider.com/next-generation-b2-bomber-2012-3 "Questions about whether the US needs another $55 billion worth of bombers."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212053548/http://www.businessinsider.com/next-generation-b2-bomber-2012-3 |date=12 December 2012}} ''Business Insider'', 27 March 2012.</ref>

In 2013, the USAF contracted for the Defensive Management System Modernization (DMS-M) program to replace the antenna system and other electronics to increase the B-2's frequency awareness.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afgsc.af.mil/News/story/id/123356798/|title=Bolstering Spirits in the Year of the B-2|work=af.mil|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101052224/http://www.afgsc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123356798|archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref> The Common Very Low Frequency Receiver upgrade allows the B-2s to use the same [[very low frequency]] transmissions as the [[Ohio-class submarine|''Ohio''-class submarine]]s so as to continue in the nuclear mission until the [[Mobile User Objective System]] is fielded.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} In 2014, the USAF outlined a series of upgrades including nuclear warfighting, a new integrated processing unit, the ability to carry cruise missiles, and threat warning improvements.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/06/25/b-2-bomber-set-to-receive-massive-upgrade/ |title=B-2 Bomber Set to Receive Massive Upgrade |last1=Osborn |first1=Kris |date=25 June 2014 |website=dodbuzz.com |publisher=Monster |access-date=25 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223212937/https://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/06/25/b-2-bomber-set-to-receive-massive-upgrade/ |archive-date=23 February 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to ongoing software challenges, DMS-M was canceled by 2020, and the existing work was repurposed for cockpit upgrades.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wolfe |first=Frank |url=https://www.defensedaily.com/air-force-looks-increase-b-2-mission-readiness-cockpit-display-upgrade/air-force/ |title= Air Force Looks to Increase B-2 Mission Readiness with Cockpit Display Upgrade |work=Defense Industry Daily |date=23 October 2020}}</ref>

In 1998, a Congressional panel advised the USAF to refocus resources away from continued B-2 production and instead begin development of a new bomber, either a new build or a variant of the B-2. In its 1999 bomber roadmap the USAF eschewed the panel's recommendations, believing its current bomber fleet could be maintained until the 2030s. The service believed that development could begin in 2013, in time to replace aging B-2s, B-1s and B-52s around 2037.<ref>Tirpak, John A. [http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1999/June%201999/0699bomber.aspx "The Bomber Roadmap"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229023812/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1999/June%201999/0699bomber.aspx |date=29 February 2016}}. Air Force Magazine, June 1999. Retrieved 30 December 2015 ([http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/1999/June%201999/0699bomber.pdf PDF version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304141259/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/1999/June%201999/0699bomber.pdf |date=4 March 2016}})</ref><ref>Grant, Rebecca. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141103010442/http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA465958 "Return of the Bomber, The Future of Long-Range Strike"], pp. 11, 17, 29. Air Force Association, February 2007.</ref>

Although the USAF previously planned to operate the B-2 until 2058, the FY 2019 budget moved up its retirement to "no later than 2032". It also moved the retirement of the B-1 to 2036 while extending the B-52's service life into the 2050s, because the B-52 has lower maintenance costs, versatile conventional payload, and the ability to carry nuclear [[cruise missile]]s (which the B-1 is treaty-prohibited from doing). The decision to retire the B-2 early was made because the small fleet of 20 is considered too expensive per plane to retain, with its position as a stealth bomber being taken over with the introduction of the [[Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider|B-21 Raider]] starting in the mid-2020s.<ref name="airforcetimes11feb18"/>