Editing Nisse (folklore) (section)

==Nomenclature==
{{Also|Nis Puk}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 320
| image1            = En gammeldags juleaften Page 05.jpg
| alt1              = A ''nisse'' eating from a bowl of Christmas porridge.
| caption1          = A ''nisse'' eating Christmas porridge.<br /> A [[beer stein]] beside it.<br />―Illustration by [[Vincent Stoltenberg Lerche]].<ref name=asbjornsen-NFHE-gammeldags-juleaften/>
| image2            = Nisse-mann.jpg
| alt2              = A nisse as stable-boy.
| caption2          = A ''nisse'' as stable-boy.<br />―Illustration by [[Hans Gude]]. Asbjørnsen (1896) ''Norske Folke- og Huldre-Eventyr''<ref name=asbjornsen-NFHE-aftenstund/>
| footer            = <!--From Asbjørnsen (1896) ''Norske Folke- og Huldre-Eventyr''.-->
}}

The word ''nisse'' is a pan-Scandinavian term.<ref name="norske-allkunnebok"/> Its modern usage in [[Norway]] into the 19th century is evidenced in [[Peter Christen Asbjørnsen|Asbjørnsen's]] collection.<ref name=asbjornsen-NFHE-gammeldags-juleaften/><ref name=asbjornsen-NFHE-aftenstund/> The Norwegian '''{{lang|no|tufte}}''' is also equated to ''nisse'' or ''tomte''.<ref name=aasen-tufte/><ref name=brynildsen-tufte/> In Danish the form {{lang|da|husnisse}} ("house nisse") also occurs.

Other synonyms include the Swedish names {{lang|sv|tomtenisse}} and {{lang|sv|tomtekarl}}{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|loc='''1''': 304}} (cf. {{section link||Additional synonyms}}). The names {{lang|sv|tomtegubbe}} and {{lang|sv|tomtebonde}} ("tomte farmer") have occurred in Sweden and parts of Norway close to Sweden.{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=304}} The Finnish {{illm|tonttu|fi|preserve=1}} is borrowed from Swedish (cf. {{section link||Etymology}}), but the Finnish spirit has gained a distinct identity and is no longer synonymous.<ref name="mansikka1916"/><ref name="holmberg1927"/> There is also the {{lang|fi|tonttu-ukko}} (lit. "house lot man") but this is a literary Christmas elf.<ref name="haavio1942"/>

There are also localized appellations,  in  and {{lang|no|tuftekall}} in [[Gudbrandsdalen]] and [[Nordland]] regions of Norway{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=304}} (cf. {{section link||Dialects}}).

Other variants include the Swedish names {{lang|sv|tomtenisse}} and {{lang|sv|tomtekarl}}; also in Sweden (and Norwegian regions proximate to Sweden) {{lang|sv|tomtegubbe}} and {{lang|sv|tomtebonde}} ("tomte farmer"),{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=304}} (cf. {{section link||Additional synonyms}}) and {{section link||Near synonyms}} ({{lang|no|haugkall}}. "mound man", etc.).

===English translations===
The term ''nisse'' in the native Norwegian is retained in Pat Shaw Iversen's English translation (1960), appended with the parenthetical remark that it is a [[household spirit]].{{sfnp|Christiansen|2016|p=137}} 

Various English language publications also introduce the ''nisse'' as an "elf" or "gnome".{{Refn|e.g., Crump's ''Christmas Encyclopedia'' (2022).<ref name="crump2022"/>}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|As a point of reference, the 19th century Norwegian linguist [[Knud Knudsen (linguist)|Knud Knudsen]] glosses the "gnome" in the vaguest sense has been glossed variously as ''nisse'' or ''vaette'' ([[wight]]), ''[[wikt:tuss|tus]]'' (giant).<ref name="knudsen1880-gnome"/>}}

In the past, {{illm|Hans Lien Brækstad|no|lt=H. L. Braekstad}} (1881) chose to substitute ''nisse'' with "[[Brownie (folklore)|brownie]]".<ref name=asbjornsen-NFHE-gammeldags-juleaften/><ref name=asbjornsen-NFHE-aftenstund/> {{illm|John Brynildsen|no|lt=Brynildsen}}'s dictionary (1927) glossed ''nisse'' as '[[goblin]]' or '[[hobgoblin]]'.<ref name=brynildsen-nisse/>

In the English editions of the [[Hans Christian Andersen]]'s fairy tales the [[Danish language|Danish]] word {{lang|da|nisse}} has been translated as 'goblin', for example, in the tale "[[The Goblin and the Grocer|The Goblin at the Grocer's]]".<ref name="binding-nisse"/>

===Dialects===
Forms such as {{lang|no|tufte}} have been seen as [[dialect]]. [[Ivar Aasen|Aasen]] noted the variant form {{lang|no|'''tuftekall'''}} to be prevalent in the [[Nordland]] and [[Trondheim]] areas of Norway,<ref name=aasen-tufte/> and the tale "Tuftefolket på Sandflesa" published by [[Peter Christen Asbjørnsen|Asbjørnsen]] is localized in [[Træna Municipality]] in Nordland.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The tale "Tuftefolket på Sandflesa" describes its setting as Trena, and Sandflesa is explained as a shifting bank off its shore.<ref name=christiansen&iversen-tuftefolk/>}} Another synonym is '''''tunkall''''' ("yard fellow"{{sfnp|Kvideland|Sehmsdorf|1988|p=238}}) also found in the north and west.{{sfnp|Christiansen|2016|pp=141, lc}} 

Thus ostensibly {{lang|no|tomte}} prevails in eastern Norway (and adjoining Sweden),{{sfnp|Stokker|2000|p=54}}{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=304}}
although there are caveats attached to such over-generalizations by linguist {{illm|Oddrun Grønvik|no}}.{{Refn|{{harvp|Grønvik, Oddrun|1997|p=154}}, summarized in English in Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts (1998).<ref name="LLBA"/>}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|She specifically addresses the generalization "tufte (-kall) har utbreeinga si noko nord- og vestafor tomte (-gubbe)," i.e., ''tufte''(-''kall'') being in use to the north and west of regions where ''tomte''(-''gubbe'') is prevalent, and states there is too scanty a material ("lite tilfang") to build on. Her study concludes that in general, current literature "does not give an accurate picture of their distribution [i.e., of the geographical distribution of the usage of varying terms for ''nisse''] in the 19th century".<ref name="LLBA"/>}} It might also be conceded that {{lang|sv|tomte}} is more a Swedish term than Norwegian.<ref>{{harvp|Knutsen|Riisøy|2007|p=48}} and note 28.</ref> In [[Scania]], [[Halland]] and [[Blekinge]] within Sweden, the ''tomte'' or ''nisse'' is also known as '''{{lang|sv|goanisse}}''' (i.e {{lang|sv|godnisse, goenisse}} 'good nisse').{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=294}}{{Refn|The ''tomte'' (''tomtar'') is also called the ''nisse'' (plural: ''nissar'') [in Blekinge].<ref name="afzelius2"/>}}

[[Reidar Thoralf Christiansen]] remarked that the "belief in the {{lang|no|nisse}} is confined to the south and east" of Norway, and theorized the ''nisse'' was introduced to Norway (from [[Denmark]]) in the 17th century,{{sfnp|Christiansen|2016|pp=141, lc}} but there is already mention of "Nisse pugen" in a Norwegian legal tract c. 1600 or earlier,<ref name="knutsen-century"/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Not inconsistent with Falk and Torp's etymological dictionary dating  the introduction into Scandinavia (from Germany) to have occurred in the post-[[Reformation]] era.<ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/>}} and {{illm|Otto Emil Birkeli|no|lt=Emil Birkeli}} (1938) believed the introduction to be as early as 13 to 14c.<ref name="knutsen-century">{{harvp|Knutsen|Riisøy|2007|p=51}} and note 35.</ref> The ''[[Norsk Allkunnebok]]'' encyclopedia states less precisely that ''nisse'' was introduced from Denmark relatively late, whereas native names found in [[Norway]] such as ''tomte'', {{lang|no|'''tomtegubbe'''}}, ''tufte'', ''tuftekall'', {{lang|no|'''gardvord'''}}, etc., date much earlier.<ref name="norske-allkunnebok"/><ref>Also quoted in {{harvp|Grønvik, Ottar|1997|p=130}}</ref>

===Etymology===
It has repeatedly been conjectured that ''nisse'' might be a variant of "[[neck (water spirit)|nixie]]" or {{lang|de|nix}}<ref name="andersen1890"/><ref name="sayers1997"/><ref name=falk&torp-nisse/> but detractors including [[Jacob Grimm]] note that a nixie is a [[water sprite]] and its proper Dano-Norwegian cognate would be ''[[nøkk]]'', not ''nisse''.<ref name="Grimm-DM-nisse"/><ref name=binding-apud-briggs/> 

According to Grimm ''nisse'' was a form of [[Niels]] (or German: {{lang|de|Niklas}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The name related to the etymology of ''nisse'' has several German forms besides Niklas, namely {{lang|de|Nickel, Klaus}}, and in Austria {{lang|de|Niklo}}.<ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/>}}), like various house sprites{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Chim (Joachim) and Has (Hans), German sprite names derived from human names, are given as synonymous to ''nisse'' by Falk&Torp.<ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/>}} that adopted human [[Given name|given names]],<ref name="Grimm-DM-nisse"/><ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|With the period of "Nisse/Niels" type spirit name being introduced into Scandinavia falling in either c. 13/14th century,<ref name="knutsen-century"/> or the 16th,<ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/> 17th century,{{sfnp|Christiansen|2016|pp=141, lc}} as discussed above.}} and was therefore cognate to [[St. Nicholas]], and related to the Christmas gift-giver.<ref name="anichkof1894"/><ref name="eichberg2018"/><ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Compare also English "Old Nick" for the name of the devil.<ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/> The name Nickel is of course related to the etymology of the metal or element [[nickel]].}} Indeed, the common explanation in Denmark is that ''nisse'' is the diminutive form of Niels, as Danes in 19th century used to refer to a ''nisse'' as "{{lang|da|Lille Niels}}" or {{lang|da|Niels Gårdbo}} ({{lang|da|gårdbo}}, literally "yard/farmstead dweller" is also name for a sprite).{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=294}}{{sfnp|Kvideland|Sehmsdorf|1988|p=238}}<ref name="norske-allkunnebok"/>

An alternate etymology derives ''nisse'' from [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|niðsi}}, meaning "dear little relative".<ref>{{harvp|Grønvik, Ottar|1997|pp=129, 144–145}}:"{{langx|no|den lille/kjære slektningen}}".</ref>

The {{lang|sv|tomte}} ("homestead man"), {{lang|no|gardvord}} ("farm guardian"), and {{lang|no|tunkall}} ("yard fellow") bear names that associated them with the [[farmstead]].{{sfnp|Kvideland|Sehmsdorf|1988|p=238}} The [[Finnish language|Finnish]] {{lang|fi|tonttu}} is also borrowed from Swedish ''tomte'', but "later tradition no longer consider these identical".<ref name="mansikka1916"/>

===Additional synonyms===
Faye also gives Dano-Norwegian forms {{lang|da|toft-vætte}} or {{lang|da|tomte-vætte}}.<ref name="faye-anmærkning-p045">{{harvp|Faye|1833|p=45–47}}; tr. {{harvp|Thorpe|1851|p=118}}</ref> These are echoed by the Swedish {{lang|sv|{{linktext|vätte}}}}, Norwegian Nynorsk {{lang|nn|{{linktext|vette}}}}.

Norwegian {{lang|no|gardvord}} (cf. {{lang|non|{{linktext|vörðr}}}}) is a synonym for ''nisse'',<ref name=falk&torp-nisse/><ref name=aasen-gardvord/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Or synonymous with {{lang|no|tunkall}}, as Christiansen comments,{{sfnp|Christiansen|2016|p=143}} but this concerns the tale "The ''Gardvord'' Beats up the ''Troll''" collected by Ivar Aasen, and Aasen's dictionary glosses ''gardvord'' as 'nisse, vætte', as a thing believed to reside on the farm ({{langx|da|gård}}).<ref name=aasen-gardvord/>}} or has become conflated with it.{{sfnp|Bringsværd|1970|p=89}} Likewise {{lang|no|'''tunvord''', "courtyard/farmstead guardian"}} is a synonym.<ref name="falk&torp-nisse"/> Also the '''{{lang|no|gårdbo}}''' ("farmyard-dweller"),<ref name="eichberg2018"/><ref>ordnet.dk s.v. "{{URL|1=https://ordnet.dk/ddo/ordbog?query=g%C3%A5rdbo |2=gårdbo}}"</ref>{{Refn|Faye gives ''gardbo''<ref name="faye-anmærkning-p045"/>}} 

Other synonyms are Norwegian {{lang|no|god bonde}} ("good farmer"),<ref name="hellquist-dict-tomte">[[Elof Hellquist|Hellquist, Elof ]] (1922) ''Svensk etymologisk ordbok'' s.v. "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsv5E6VApfUC&pg=PA988 |2=Tomte}}", p. 988.</ref> Danish {{lang|da|god dreng}} ("good lad").<ref name="hellquist-dict-tomte"/> Also Danish {{lang|da|gårdbuk}} ("farm buck") and {{lang|da|husbuk}} ("housebuck") where buck could mean billygoat or ram.<ref name="eichberg2018"/>{{Refn|Mannhardt<ref name="mannhardt1868"/> citing {{harvp|Grundtvig|1854|loc='''1''': 155, 126, 142}}.}}<ref name="atkinson1865"/>

Regionally in [[Uppland]] Sweden is {{lang|sv|gårdsrå}} ("yard-spirit"), which being a ''[[rå]]'' often takes on a female form, which might relate to Western Norwegian {{lang|no|garvor}} (gardvord).{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=307}}

In the confines of Klepsland in [[Evje]], [[Setesdal]], Norway they spoke of {{lang|no|fjøsnisse}} ("barn gnome").{{sfnp|Olrik|Ellekilde|1926|p=304}}

====Near synonyms====
{{Also|#Parallels}}
Some commentators have equated or closely connected the ''tomte/nisse'' to the {{lang|sv|haugbonde}} (<{{langx|non|haubúi}} "mound dweller").{{Refn|Kveldúlf Gundarsson ([[Stephan Grundy]])<ref name="gundarsson2021"/> citing Feilberg<ref name="feilberg1904"/>}}{{Refn|{{harvp|Simpson|1994|p=173}} citing [[Andreas Faye]] (1833) {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=RitXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA42 |2=Norske Sagn}}, pp. 42–45, though this seems wanting, except for "Haug børnene (mound children)" on p. 37).}} However there is caution expressed by linguist Oddrun Grønvik against completely equating the ''tomte/nissse'' with the mound dwellers of lore, called the {{lang|no|haugkall}} or {{lang|no|haugebonde}} (from the [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|haugr}} 'mound'),{{sfnp|Grønvik, Oddrun|1997|p=154}} although the latter has become indistinguishable with ''{{lang|no|tuss}}'', as evident from the form ''{{lang|no|haugtuss}}''.{{sfnp|Grønvik, Oddrun|1997|p=154}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|A different opinion comes from SF writer and academic [[Tor Åge Bringsværd]] who includes ''tusse'' among the synonyms for ''nisse''.<ref>{{harvp|Bringsværd|1970|p=89}}. "the nisse, also known under the name of tusse, tuftebonde, tuftekall, tomte and gobonde".</ref>}}

The ''haugbonde'' is said to be the ghost of  the first inhabitant of the farmstead, he who cleared the {{lang|sv|tomt}} (house lot), who subsequently becomes its guardian.{{sfnp|Lecouteux|2015|p=PT151}} This ''haugbonde'' has also connected with the Danish/Norwegian {{lang|no|tuntræt}} (modern spelling: {{lang|no|tuntre}}, "farm tree") or in Swedish {{lang|sv|{{illm|vårdträd|sv|lt=vårdträd}}}} ("ward tree") cult<ref name="feilberg1904"/><ref name="gundarsson2021"/>{{sfnp|Lecouteux|2015|p=PT151}} (Cf. {{section link||Origin theories}}).

Another near synonym is the {{lang|da|drage-dukke}}, where ''dukke'' denotes a "dragger" or "drawer, puller" (of luck or goods delivered to the beneficiary human), which is distinguishable from a ''nisse'' since it is considered not to haunt a specific household.<ref name="atkinson1865"/>