Editing Ngô Đình Nhu (section)

==Early years==
Nhu's family originated from the central Vietnamese village of Phú Cam.{{verify source|date=August 2023}} His family had served as [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]]s in the imperial court in Huế. His father, [[Ngô Đình Khả]], was a counselor to Emperor [[Thành Thái]] during the French colonisation. After the French deposed the emperor on the pretext of insanity, Khả retired in protest and became a farmer. Nhu was the fourth of six sons, born in 1910.<ref name="early k">Karnow, pp. 229–33.</ref>

In his early years, Nhu was aloof from politics and was regarded as a bookish and quiet personality who preferred academic pursuits. By the 1920s, his three elder brothers [[Ngô Đình Khôi]], [[Ngô Đình Thục]] and [[Ngô Đình Diệm]] were becoming prominent figures in Vietnam. Thục became the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Huế in 1960. In 1932, Diệm became the interior minister but resigned within a few months after realising that he would not be given any real power.<ref>Jacobs, pp. 10–20.</ref> Nhu showed little interest in following in their footsteps.<ref name=m448>Miller, p. 448.</ref>

Nhu completed a bachelor's degree in literature in Paris and then studied paleography and librarianship, graduating from the [[École Nationale des Chartes]], an archivists' school in Paris.<ref name=m448/> He returned to Vietnam from France at the outbreak of World War II. He was influenced by [[personalism]], a concept he had acquired in the [[Latin Quarter]]. It had been conceived in the 1930s by Catholic progressives such as [[Emmanuel Mounier]]. Mounier's heirs in Paris, who edited the left wing Catholic review ''Esprit'' denounced Nhu as a fraud.<ref name="early k"/> Personalism blamed liberal capitalism for the [[Great Depression]] and individualistic greed and exploitation, and disagreed with communism due to its opposition to spirituality.<ref name=m449>Miller, p. 449.</ref>

Nhu worked at [[Hanoi]]'s National Library and in 1943,<ref name=m448/> he married Trần Lệ Xuân, later known as "[[Madame Nhu]]". She was a Buddhist but converted to her husband's religion. The French dismissed Nhu from his high-ranking post,<ref name=m448/> due to Diệm's nationalist activities, and he moved to the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Central Highlands]] resort town of [[Da Lat|Đà Lạt]] and lived comfortably, editing a newspaper.<ref name="Karnow, pp. 280–284">Karnow, pp. 280–84.</ref> He raised orchids during his time in Đà Lạt.<ref name=m448/>

After the [[August Revolution]] of 1945, when [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]]'s communist [[Viet Minh]] declared independence, various groups as well as the French colonialists jockeyed for political control.<ref name=j2023>Jacobs, pp. 20–23.</ref> Nhu became more politically active, especially in helping his brothers to establish a political base among Vietnamese Catholics.<ref name=m448/> By this time, Khôi had been assassinated by the communists, {{Clarify|date=December 2011}} so Diệm became the leading political figure in the family.<ref name=j2023/> Diệm had little success in the late 1940s and went into exile in 1950 to campaign from abroad after the communists sentenced him to death in absentia.<ref>Jacobs, pp. 24–32.</ref>

Up to this point, Nhu had kept a relatively low-key profile.<ref name=m448/> However, he appeared to imbue personalist ideas into his elder brother, who used the philosophy's terminology in his speeches. Diệm and Nhu thought that personalism went well with their "Third Force" anti-communist and anti-colonial ideology.<ref name=m449/> After 1950, Nhu became a leading figure in the mobilizing of his elder brother's support based among anti-communist Vietnamese. He became assertive in pushing personalism as a guiding ideology for Vietnam's social development. In April 1952, Nhu gave a talk on the topic at the newly opened [[Vietnamese National Military Academy]] in Đà Lạt. He said the Catholic concept was applicable to people from all backgrounds,<ref name=m449/> especially in the fight against communist and unadulterated capitalism. He called on all Vietnamese to engage in a personalist-driven social revolution to strengthen the society and country.<ref name=m450>Miller, p. 450.</ref>

Nhu was known for making long, abstract and difficult-to-understand speeches, something which many Vietnamese resented.<ref name=m450/> Although Nhu was known for his pretensions as an intellectual and political philosopher, he was to become quite effective as a political organizer.<ref name=m450/> Around 1950, Nhu started the forerunner of what would become [[Personalist Labor Revolutionary Party|Cần Lao]] (Personalist Labor Party), forming the power base and control mechanism of the Ngô family. A secret organization, initially, little is known of the Cần Lao's early years. The body consisted of a network of cells, and most members knew the identities of only a few colleagues. After 1954, its existence was declared, but the public knew little of its activities, which were mostly hidden from public view or oversight.<ref name=m450/> In the early 1950s, the Cần Lao was used to mobilize support for Diệm's political campaign.<ref name=m450/> Around 1953, Nhu began an alliance with Trần Quốc Bửu, a trade unionist who headed the Vietnamese Confederation of Christian Workers. Nhu and his supporters began publishing a [[Saigon]] journal called ''Xa Hoi'' (''Society''), which endorsed Bửu's movement and trade unionism in general.<ref name=m451>Miller, p. 451.</ref>

At the time, opportunities for opposition politicians began to open up. [[Bảo Đại]], head of state of the [[State of Vietnam]], an associated state of the [[French Union]] became increasingly unpopular as the citizens became increasingly impatient with his strategy of allying with the French against the communists in return for gradually increased autonomy and eventual independence. Many felt that the Bảo Đại's policies would never deliver meaningful self-determination.<ref name=m452>Miller, p. 452.</ref>

In late-1953, Nhu began to try to foment and exploit anti-Bảo Đại sentiment. He organised a Unity Congress, a forum of various anti-communist nationalists such as [[Nguyễn Tôn Hoàn]]'s [[Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam]], various Catholic groups and activists, as well as the [[Hòa Hảo]] and [[Cao Đài]] religious sects, and the [[Bình Xuyên]] organised crime syndicate. Nhu's real objective was to gain publicity for Diệm, especially while Bảo Đại was overseas and unable to respond effectively. The conference turned into chaos, but Nhu achieved his objective of gaining publicity for his brother; additionally, the other groups had engaged in angry denunciations against Bảo Đại.<ref>Miller, pp. 452–53.</ref>

The Emperor Bảo Đại announced that a National Congress would be opened in October. The leaders of most of the other parties agreed to participate, but Nhu and his organizations were absent. He was worried that the body might play into Bảo Đại's hands by endorsing him. This appeared to be the way the delegates were heading at first, but a sudden change saw an upsurge of condemnation against Bảo Đại's policies of coexistence with France.<ref name=m453>Miller, p. 453.</ref>