Editing Names of China (section)

== Sinitic names ==
{{anchor|Zhongguo|Zhonghua}}

=== Zhongguo ===
==== Pre-Qing ====
[[File:He Zun transcription.jpg|thumb|400px|[[He zun|He ''zun'']] rubbing and transcription; framed is the phrase {{zhi|c=宅𢆶𠁩或|p=zhái zī zhōngguó|l=inhabit this central state}}. The same phrase is written in [[traditional characters|traditional]] and [[simplified characters]] as {{zhi|c=宅茲中国|t=宅茲中國}}]]<!---𠁩 which is an ancient form of {{zhi|c=中}}, the other three characters are rebuses;--->
[[File:"Five stars rising in the East" armband.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The [["Five stars rising in the East" armband|brocade armband]] with the words "Five stars rising in the east, being a propitious sign for ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' ({{zhi|t=中國}}), made during the Han dynasty]]
[[File:Nestorian-Stele-Budge-plate-X.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The [[Nestorian Stele]] {{zhi|c=大秦景教流行中國碑}} entitled "Stele to the propagation in China of the luminous religion of [[Daqin]]", was erected in 781, during the Tang dynasty]]
[[File:Hunminjeongum.jpg|thumb|upright|The most important Korean document, ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]'', dated 1446, where it compares [[Joseon]]'s speech to that of ''Zhongguo'' (''Middle Kingdom''), which was during the reign of Ming dynasty at the time. Korean and other neighbouring societies have addressed the various regimes and dynasties on the Chinese mainland at differing times as "Middle Kingdom"]]
{{zhi|c=中國|p=Zhōngguó|out=p}} is the most common [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name for China in modern times. The earliest appearance of this two-character term is on the [[He zun|He ''zun'']], a bronze vessel dating to 1038–{{circa|1000 BCE}}, during the early [[Western Zhou]] period. The phrase "{{Transliteration|zh|zhong guo}}" came into common usage in the [[Warring States period]] (475–221 BCE), when it referred to the "Central States", the states of the [[Yellow River]] Valley of the Zhou era, as distinguished from the tribal periphery.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p=232–233}}</ref> In later periods, however, {{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}} was not used in this sense. Dynastic names were used for the state in [[Imperial China]], and concepts of the state aside from the ruling dynasty were little understood.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2015|p=191}} Rather, the country was called by the name of the dynasty, such as "[[Han dynasty|Han]]", "[[Tang dynasty|Tang]]", "[[Ming dynasty|Great Ming]]", "[[Qing dynasty|Great Qing]]", etc. Until the 19th century, when the globalizing world began to require a common legal language, there was no need for a fixed or unique name.<ref name="Zarrow ">{{cite book |last = Zarrow |first = Peter Gue |year = 2012 |title = After Empire: The Conceptual Transformation of the Chinese State, 1885–1924 |publisher = [[Stanford University Press]]| location = Stanford, California |isbn = 978-0-8047-7868-8 }}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VJfbNnquT8EC&q=zhongguo p. 93-94] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170214/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJfbNnquT8EC&q=zhongguo |date=2023-04-11 }}.</ref>

As early as the [[Spring and Autumn period]], ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' could be understood as either the domain of the capital or used to refer to the Chinese civilization {{zhi|c=諸夏|p=zhūxià|l=the [[Huaxia|various Xia]]|out=p}}<ref>''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' "[https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E9%96%94%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3 Duke Min – 1st year – zhuan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429050735/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E9%96%94%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3 |date=2022-04-29 }}" quote: "諸夏親暱不可棄也" translation: "The various Xia are close intimates and can not be abandoned"</ref><ref>[[Du Yu]], ''Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations'', "Vol. 4" [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77348&page=136#%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F p. 136 of 186] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511185015/https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77348&page=136#%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F |date=2022-05-11 }}. quote: "諸夏中國也"</ref> or {{zhi|c=諸華|p=zhūhuá|l=various [[Huaxia|Hua]]|out=p}},<ref>''Zuozhuan'' "[https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_4 Duke Xiang – 4th year – zhuan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429050735/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_4 |date=2022-04-29 }}" quote: "諸華必叛" translation: "The various Hua would surely revolt"</ref><ref>Du Yu, ''Chunqiu Zuozhuan – Collected Explanations'', "Vol. 15". [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77350&page=102#%E8%AB%B8%E8%8F%AF p. 102 of 162] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511185018/https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=77350&page=102#%E8%AB%B8%E8%8F%AF |date=2022-05-11 }} quote: "諸華中國"</ref> and the political and geographical domain that contained it, but [[Tianxia]] was the more common word for this idea. This developed into the usage of the Warring States period, when, other than the cultural community, it could be the geopolitical area of Chinese civilization as well, equivalent to [[Jiuzhou]]. In a more limited sense, it could also refer to the Central Plain or the states of [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]], [[Wei (state)|Wei]], and [[Han (Warring States)|Han]], etc., geographically central among the Warring States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ban Wang |title=Chinese Visions of World Order: Tian, Culture and World Politics |pages=270–272}}</ref> Although ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' could be used before the [[Song dynasty]] period to mean the trans-dynastic Chinese culture or civilization to which Chinese people belonged, it was in the Song dynasty that writers used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as a term to describe the trans-dynastic entity with different dynastic names over time but having a set territory and defined by common ancestry, culture, and language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tackett |first1=Nicolas |title=Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-19677-3 |pages=4, 161–2, 174, 194, 208, 280}}</ref>

The term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was used differently in every period. It could refer to the capital of the emperor to distinguish it from the capitals of his vassals, as in [[Western Zhou]]. It could refer to the states of the [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] to distinguish them from states in the outer regions. The ''[[Classic of Poetry|Shi Jing]]'' defines ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as the capital region, setting it in opposition to the capital city.<ref>''Classic of Poetry'', "Major Hymns – [https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/min-lu Min Lu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412135203/https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/min-lu |date=2022-04-12 }}" quote: {{zhi|c=《惠此{{underline|中國}}、以綏四方。…… 惠此{{underline|京師}}、以綏四國 。}}
" Legge's translation: "Let us cherish this '''center of the kingdom''', to secure the repose of the four quarters of it. [...] Let us cherish this '''capital''', to secure the repose of the States in the four quarters."</ref><ref>[[Zhu Xi]] (publisher, 1100s), ''Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry (詩經集傳)'' [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=197338 "Juan A (卷阿)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412135200/https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&chapter=197338 |date=2022-04-12 }} [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=9218&page=68#%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E4%B9%9F%E5%9B%9B%E6%96%B9%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%9F%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%8B%E6%A0%B9%E6%9C%AC%E4%B9%9F p. 68 of 198] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412135202/https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=9218&page=68#%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E4%B9%9F%E5%9B%9B%E6%96%B9%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%9F%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%AB%E8%AB%B8%E5%A4%8F%E4%B9%8B%E6%A0%B9%E6%9C%AC%E4%B9%9F |date=2022-04-12 }} quote: "'''中國'''，'''京師'''也。四方，諸夏也。'''京師'''，諸夏之根本也。" translation: "The '''center of the kingdom''' means the '''capital'''. The 'four quarters' refer to the [[Huaxia]]. The '''capital''' is the root of the various Xia."</ref> During the [[Han dynasty]], three usages of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' were common. The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' use ''Zhongguo'' to denote the capital<ref>''Shiji'', [https://ctext.org/shiji/wu-di-ben-ji "Annals of the Five Emperors"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510220701/https://ctext.org/shiji/wu-di-ben-ji |date=2022-05-10 }} quote: "舜曰：「天也」，夫而後之'''中國'''踐天子位焉，是為帝舜。" translation: "Shun said, 'It is from Heaven.' Afterwards he went to the '''capital''', sat on the Imperial throne, and was styled Emperor Shun."</ref><ref>Pei Yin, ''Records of the Grand Historian – Collected Explanation'' [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=386615#p7 Vol. 1] "劉熈曰……帝王所'''都'''為中故曰'''中國'''" translation: "Liu Xi said: [...] Wherever emperors and kings '''established their capitals''' is taken as the center; hence the appellation the '''central region'''"</ref> and also use the concepts ''{{Transliteration|zh|zhong}}'' ("center, central") and ''{{Transliteration|zh|zhongguo}}'' to indicate the center of civilization: "There are eight famous mountains in the world: three in [[Nanman|Man]] and [[Dongyi|Yi]] (the barbarian wilds), five in {{Transliteration|zh|Zhōngguó}}." ({{lang|zh|天下名山八，而三在蠻夷，五在中國。}})<ref>''Shiji'', [https://ctext.org/shiji/xiao-wu-ben-ji#n5101 "Annals of Emperor Xiaowu"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316215829/https://ctext.org/shiji/xiao-wu-ben-ji#n5101 |date=2022-03-16 }}</ref><ref>''Shiji'' [https://ctext.org/shiji/feng-chan-shu#n5786 "Treatise about the Feng Shan sacrifices"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316215831/https://ctext.org/shiji/feng-chan-shu#n5786 |date=2022-03-16 }}</ref> In this sense, the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' is synonymous with {{zhi|p=Huáxià|t=華夏|s=华夏|out=p}} and {{zhi|p=Zhōnghuá|t=中華|s=中华|out=p}}, names of China that were first authentically attested in the [[Warring States period]]<ref>''Zuo zhuan'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_26 "Duke Xiang, year 26, zhuan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318183122/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3/%E8%A5%84%E5%85%AC#%E5%82%B3_26 |date=2022-03-18 }} text: "楚失華夏．" translation: "[[Chu (state)|Chu]] lost (the political allegiance of / the political influence over) the '''flourishing''' and '''grand''' (states)."</ref> and [[Jin dynasty (266-420)#Eastern Jin|Eastern Jin period]],<ref>[[Huan Wen]] (347 CE). "Memorial Recommending Qiao Yuanyan" (薦譙元彥表), quoted in [[Sun Sheng (Jin dynasty)|Sun Sheng]]'s ''Annals of Jin'' (晉陽秋) (now-lost), quoted in [[Pei Songzhi]]'s [[Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms|annotations]] to [[Chen Shou]], ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B742#%E5%AD%AB_%E8%AD%99%E7%A7%80 "Biography of Qiao Xiu"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404033109/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B742#%E5%AD%AB_%E8%AD%99%E7%A7%80 |date=2022-04-04 }} quote: "於時皇極遘道消之會，群黎蹈顛沛之艱，'''中華'''有顧瞻之哀，幽谷無遷喬之望。"</ref><ref>Farmer, J. Michael (2017) "Sanguo Zhi Fascicle 42: The Biography of Qiao Zhou", ''Early Medieval China'', '''23''', 22-41, p. 39. quote: "At this time, the imperial court has encountered a time of decline in the Way, the peasants have been trampled down by oppressive hardships, '''Zhonghua''' has the anguish of looking backward [toward the former capital at Luoyang], and the dark valley has no hope of moving upward." DOI: 10.1080/15299104.2017.1379725</ref> respectively.

[[File:Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png|thumb|left|"Middle Kingdom's Common Speech" (''Medii Regni Communis Loquela'', {{zhi|c=中國官話|p=Zhongguo Guanhua}}), the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by [[Étienne Fourmont]] in 1742<ref>{{cite web |last = Fourmont |first = Etienne |title = Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium. Item Sinicorum Regiae Bibliothecae librorum catalogus… (A Chinese grammar published in 1742 in Paris) |url = http://www.liberlibri.com/coulet_fourmont.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120306015446/http://www.liberlibri.com/coulet_fourmont.htm |archive-date = 2012-03-06 }}</ref>]]

From the Qin to the Ming dynasty, literati discussed ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as both a historical place or territory and as a culture. Writers of the Ming period in particular used the term as a political tool to express opposition to expansionist policies that incorporated foreigners into the empire.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=w68uObIhx9MC&pg=PA103 Jiang 2011], p. 103.</ref> In contrast, foreign conquerors typically avoided discussions of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' and instead defined membership in their empires to include both Han and non-Han peoples.<ref>Peter K Bol, "Geography and Culture: Middle-Period Discourse on the Zhong Guo: The Central Country," (2009), 1, 26.</ref>

==== Qing ====
''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' appeared in a formal international legal document for the first time during the Qing dynasty in the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]], 1689. The term was then used in communications with other states and in treaties. The Manchu rulers [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|incorporated Inner Asian polities into their empire]], and [[Wei Yuan]], a statecraft scholar, distinguished the new territories from ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', which he defined as the 17 provinces of "[[China proper]]" plus the Manchu homelands in the Northeast. By the late 19th century, the term had emerged as a common name for the whole country. The empire was sometimes referred to as Great Qing but increasingly as ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|pp=232–233}}</ref>

{{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} is the [[Manchu language|Manchu]] name for China, with "Dulimbai" meaning "central" or "middle" and "Gurun" meaning "nation" or "state".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 Hauer 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170207/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA117 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 Dvořák 1895] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170221/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA80 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 Wu 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170211/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA102 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 102.</ref> The historian Zhao Gang writes that "not long after the collapse of the Ming, China became the equivalent of Great Qing ({{Transliteration|zh|Da Qing}})—another official title of the Qing state," and "Qing and China became interchangeable official titles, and the latter often appeared as a substitute for the former in official documents."{{sfnb|Zhao|2006| p = 7}} The Qing dynasty referred to their realm as "''Dulimbai Gurun''" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing realm (including present-day [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia]], Tibet, and other areas) with "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a [[multi-ethnic state]], rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas; both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China". Officials used "China" (though not exclusively) in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai gurun i bithe}} referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ({{Zhi|t=中國人|p=Zhōngguórén}}; {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai gurun i niyalma}}) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.{{sfnb|Zhao|2006|p = [https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf 4, 7–10, 12–14]}} Ming loyalist Han literati held to defining the old Ming borders as China and using "foreigner" to describe [[Ethnic minorities in China|minorities]] under Qing rule such as the Mongols and Tibetans, as part of their anti-Qing ideology.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/6928995/The_Literati_Rewriting_of_China_in_the_Qianlong-Jiaqing_Transition Mosca 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926130202/http://www.academia.edu/6928995/The_Literati_Rewriting_of_China_in_the_Qianlong-Jiaqing_Transition |date=2018-09-26 }}, p. 94.</ref>

[[File:滿蒙漢合璧教科書 (節錄).png|thumb|500px|Chapter ''China'' ({{zhi|t=中國}}) of "The Manchurian, Mongolian and Han Chinese Trilingual Textbook" ({{zhi|s=滿蒙漢三語合璧教科書}}) published during the Qing dynasty: ''"Our country China is located in [[East Asia]]... For 5000 years, culture flourished (in the land of China)... Since we are Chinese, how can we not love China."'']]
When the Qing [[Ten Great Campaigns#Three campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759)|conquered Dzungaria in 1759]], they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into {{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} in a Manchu language memorial.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170150/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 77.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180322/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA83 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 83.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 Elliott 2001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180227/https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&dq=steppes+mountains+rivers+Dzungar+unified+with+china&pg=PA503 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 503.</ref> The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese, like the Tibetans, Inner, Eastern, and Oirat Mongols, together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family", united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family. The Qing used the phrase "{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Zhōngwài yījiā|labels=no}}" ({{Lang-zh|c={{linktext|中外|一家}}|s=|t=|labels=no|l=China and other [countries] as one family}}) or "{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Nèiwài yījiā|labels=no}}" ({{Lang-zh|c={{linktext|內外}}一家|s=|t=|labels=no|l=Interior and exterior as one family}}), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 Dunnell 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170150/https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun+land&pg=PA77 |date=2023-04-11 }}, pp. 76-77.</ref> A Manchu-language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing "people of the Central Kingdom ({{Transliteration|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}})".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170213/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 205.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170218/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA205 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 205.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 Cassel 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411180504/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlJpAgAAQBAJ&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 44.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 Cassel 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170226/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2JTJW0X6LkC&dq=Qing+Russian+jurisdiction+crossborder+crime+bandits&pg=PA44 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 44.</ref> In the Manchu official [[Tulisen]]'s Manchu language [[Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars|account of his meeting]] with the [[Kalmyk people|Torghut Mongol]] leader [[Ayuka Khan|Ayuki Khan]], it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" ({{Transliteration|mnc|dulimba-i gurun}}''/''{{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=中國|labels=no|p=Zhōngguó}}) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 Perdue 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411170151/https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&pg=PA218 |date=2023-04-11 }}, p. 218.</ref>

The geography textbooks published in the late Qing period gave detailed descriptions of China's regional position and territorial space. They generally emphasized that China was a large country in Asia but not the center of the world. For example, the "Elementary Chinese Geography Textbook" ({{Zhi|t=蒙學中國地理教科書}}) published in 1905 described the boundaries of China's territory and neighboring countries as follows: "The western border of China is located in the center of Asia, bordering the (overseas) territories of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]. The terrain is humped, like a hat. So all mountains and rivers originate from here. To the east, it faces [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] across the [[East China Sea]]. To the south, it is adjacent to the [[South China Sea]], and borders [[French Indochina|French Annam]] and [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]]. To the southwest, it is separated from [[British Raj|British India]] by mountains. From the west to the north and the northeast, the three sides of China are all Russian territories. Only the southern border of the northeast is connected to [[Korean Empire|Korea]] across the [[Yalu River]]." It further stated that "There are about a dozen countries in Asia, but only China has a vast territory, a prosperous population, and dominates East Asia. It is a great and world-famous country."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.sohu.com/a/127415152_488316 | title = 地理书写与国家认同：清末地理教科书中的民族主义话语 | website = [[Sohu]] | access-date = June 9, 2024}}</ref>

The Qing enacted the first [[Chinese nationality law]] in 1909, which defined a Chinese national ({{lang-zh|c=中國國籍|p=Zhōngguó Guójí|links=no}}) as any person born to a Chinese father. Children born to a Chinese mother inherited her nationality only if the father was [[statelessness|stateless]] or had unknown nationality status.<ref name="Shao5">{{cite journal |last=Shao |first=Dan |title=Chinese by Definition: Nationality Law, Jus Sanguinis, and State Succession, 1909–1980 |journal=Twentieth-Century China |year=2009 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=4–28 |doi=10.1353/tcc.0.0019 |s2cid=201771890}}</ref> These regulations were enacted in response to a 1907 statute passed in [[The Netherlands]] that retroactively treated all Chinese born in the [[Dutch East Indies]] as Dutch citizens. ''[[Jus sanguinis]]'' was chosen to define Chinese nationality so that the Qing could counter foreign claims on [[overseas Chinese]] populations and maintain the perpetual allegiance of its subjects living abroad through paternal lineage.<ref name="Shao5" /> A Chinese word called {{Transliteration|zh|xuètǒng}} ({{zhi|c=血統}}), which means "bloodline" as a literal translation, is used to explain the descent relationship that would characterize someone as being of Chinese descent and therefore eligible under the Qing laws and beyond, for Chinese citizenship.<ref name=Claytonp108>{{cite book |title=[[Sovereignty at the Edge: Macau & the Question of Chineseness]]|first=Cathryn H. |last=Clayton |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2alTUjb6SX8C&pg=PA108 108] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2010|isbn=978-0-674-03545-4 }}</ref>

[[Mark Elliott (historian)|Mark Elliott]] noted that it was under the Qing that "China" transformed into a definition of referring to lands where the "state claimed sovereignty" rather than only the [[Central Plains (China)|Central Plains]] area and its people by the end of the 18th century.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=36 Elliot 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194025/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945?seq=36 |date=2018-08-03 }}, p. 638.</ref>

Elena Barabantseva also noted that the Manchu referred to all subjects of the Qing empire regardless of ethnicity as "Chinese" ({{Zhi|t={{linktext|中國|之|人}}|p=Zhōngguó zhī rén|l=China's person}}), and used the term ({{Zhi|t=中國|p=Zhōngguó}}) as a synonym for the entire Qing empire while using {{Transliteration|zh|Hànrén}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|漢人}}}}) to refer only to the core area of the empire, with the entire empire viewed as multiethnic.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=U3XFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 Barabantseva 2010], p. 20.</ref>

[[William T. Rowe]] wrote that the name "China" ({{zhi|t=中國|s=中華}}) was apparently understood to refer to the political realm of the [[Han Chinese]] during the [[Ming dynasty]], that this understanding persisted among the Han Chinese into the early Qing dynasty, and that the understanding was also shared by [[Aisin Gioro]] rulers before the [[Ming–Qing transition]]. The Qing, however, "came to refer to their more expansive empire not only as the Great Qing but also, nearly interchangeably, as China" within a few decades of this development. Instead of the earlier (Ming) idea of an ethnic Han Chinese state, this new Qing China was a "self-consciously multi-ethnic state". Han Chinese scholars had some time to adapt this, but by the 19th century, the notion of China as a [[multinational state]] with new, significantly extended borders had become the standard terminology for Han Chinese writers. Rowe noted that "these were the origins of the China we know today.". He added that while the early Qing rulers viewed themselves as multi-hatted emperors who ruled several nationalities "separately but simultaneously", by the mid-19th century, the Qing Empire had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states and entered into a series of treaties with the West, and such treaties and documents consistently referred to Qing rulers as the "[[Emperor of China]]" and his administration as the "Government of China".<ref>{{cite book | first = Rowe | last = Rowe | title = China's Last Empire – The Great Qing | year = 2010 | publisher = Harvard University Press | pages = 210–211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC |access-date=February 15, 2010| isbn = 978-0-674-05455-4 }}</ref>

[[Joseph W. Esherick]] noted that while the Qing Emperors governed frontier non-Han areas in a different, separate system under the [[Lifan Yuan|Lifanyuan]] and kept them separate from Han areas and administration, it was the Manchu Qing Emperors who expanded the definition of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' and made it "flexible" by using that term to refer to the entire Empire and using that term to other countries in diplomatic correspondence, while some Han Chinese subjects criticized their usage of the term and the Han literati [[Wei Yuan]] used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' only to refer to the seventeen provinces of China and three manchurian provinces of the east, excluding other frontier areas.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p= 232}}</ref> Due to the Qing usage of treaties clarifying the international borders of the Qing state, they were able to inculcate in the Chinese people a sense that China included areas such as Mongolia and Tibet by education reforms in geography, which made it clear where the borders of the Qing state were, even if the populace didn't understand how the Chinese identity included Tibetans and Mongolians or what the connotations of being Chinese were.<ref>{{harvp|Esherick|2006|p= 251}}</ref> The English version of the 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking]] refers to "His Majesty the Emperor of China" while the Chinese refers both to "The Great Qing Emperor" ({{Transliteration|zh|Da Qing Huangdi}}) and to ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as well. The 1858 [[Treaty of Tientsin]] contains similar language.<ref name="Zarrow" />

In the late 19th century, the reformer [[Liang Qichao]] argued in a famous passage that "our greatest shame is that our country has no name. The names that people ordinarily think of, such as Xia, Han, or Tang, are all the titles of bygone dynasties." He argued that the other countries of the world "all boast of their own state names, such as England and France, the only exception being the Central States",<ref>Liang quoted in {{harvp|Esherick|2006|p=235}}, from Liang Qichao, "Zhongguo shi xulun" ''Yinbinshi heji'' 6:3 and in Lydia He Liu, ''The Clash of Empires: The Invention of China in Modern World Making'' (Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 2004), pp. 77–78.</ref> and that the concept of {{Transliteration|zh|tianxia}} had to be abandoned in favor of {{Transliteration|zh|guojia}}, that is, "nation", for which he accepted the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>[[Henrietta Harrison]]. ''China'' (London: Arnold; New York: [[Oxford University Press]]; Inventing the Nation Series, 2001. {{ISBN|0-340-74133-3}}), pp. 103–104.</ref> On the other hand, American Protestant missionary [[John Livingstone Nevius]], who had been in China for 40 years, wrote in his 1868 book that the most common name which the Chinese used in speaking of their country was ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'', followed by ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghuaguo}}'' (中華國) and other names such as {{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}} (天朝) and the particular title of the reigning dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|title = China and the Chinese|last = Nevius|first = John|publisher = Harper|year = 1868|pages = 21–22}}</ref><ref name="zhongguoname">{{cite web | url = https://www.chinanews.com.cn/m/ll/2018/01-22/8429793.shtml | title = 清朝时期"中国"作为国家名称从传统到现代的发展 | access-date = 2024-06-04}}</ref> Also, the Chinese geography textbook published in 1907 stated that "Chinese citizens call their country ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}''", and noted that China (''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'') was one of the few independent monarchical countries in the whole Asia at that time, along with countries like Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|title = 中國地理學教科書|author = 屠寄|publisher = 商務印書館|year = 1907|pages = 19–24}}</ref> The Japanese term "''[[Shina (word)|Shina]]''" was once proposed by some as a basically neutral Western-influenced equivalent for "China". But after the founding of the [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]] in 1912, ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was also adopted as the abbreviation of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minguo}},<ref>Endymion Wilkinson, ''Chinese History: A Manual'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Rev. and enl., 2000 {{ISBN|0-674-00247-4}} ), 132.</ref> and most Chinese considered {{Transliteration|ja|Shina}} foreign and demanded that even the Japanese replace it with ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minguo}}'', or simply ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''.<ref>Douglas R. Reynolds. ''China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan''. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1993 {{ISBN|0674116607}}), pp. 215–16 n. 20.</ref>

Before the signing of the [[Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty]] in 1871, the first treaty between Qing China and the [[Empire of Japan]], Japanese representatives once raised objections to China's use of the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' in the treaty, partly in response to China's earlier objections for the term {{Transliteration|ja|Tennō}} or [[Emperor of Japan]] to be used in the treaty, declaring that the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was "meant to compare with the frontier areas of the country" and insisted that only "Great Qing" be used for the Qing in the Chinese version of the treaty. However, this was firmly rejected by the Qing representatives: "Our country China has been called ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' for a long time since ancient times. We have signed treaties with various countries, and while ''Great Qing'' did appear in the first lines of such treaties, in the body of the treaties ''Zhongguo'' was always being used. There has never been a precedent for changing the country name" (我中華之稱中國，自上古迄今，由來已久。即與各國立約，首書寫大清國字樣，其條款內皆稱中國，從無寫改國號之例). The Chinese representatives believed that ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' as a country name equivalent to "Great Qing" could naturally be used internationally, which could not be changed. In the end, both sides agreed that while in the first lines "Great Qing" would be used, whether the Chinese text in the body of the treaty would use the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' in the same manner as "Great Qing" would be up to China's discretion.<ref name="zhongguoname" /><ref>{{cite book|author=黄兴涛|title=重塑中华|page=48|year=2023|publisher=大象出版社}}</ref>

[[File:Big Dragon stamps.jpg|thumb|right|Qing postal stamps released in 1878]]
Qing official Zhang Deyi once objected to the western European name "China" and said that China referred to itself as ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}''.<ref name="LIULiu2009">{{cite book |author1 = Lydia He. LIU |author2 = Lydia He Liu |title = The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LkTO2_-XDa8C&pg=PA80 |date = 30 June 2009 |publisher = Harvard University Press |isbn = 978-0-674-04029-8 |pages=80–}}</ref> However, the Qing established [[legation]]s and [[consulate]]s known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in [[Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty|various countries with diplomatic relations]], such as the United Kingdom and United States. Both English and Chinese terms, such as "China" and "''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}''", were frequently used by Qing legations and consulates there to refer to the Qing state during their diplomatic correspondences with foreign states.<ref>{{cite book | title = 晚清駐英使館照會檔案, Volume 1 | year = 2020 | publisher = 上海古籍出版社 | pages = 28 | isbn = 9787532596096 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KShzQEACAAJ |access-date=August 22, 2023 }}</ref> Moreover, the English name "China" was also used domestically by the Qing, such as in its officially released stamps since Qing set up a modern postal system in 1878. The [[postage stamp]]s (known as {{zhi|c=大龍郵票}} in Chinese) had a design of a large dragon in the centre, surrounded by a boxed frame with a bilingual inscription of "CHINA" (corresponding to the Great Qing Empire in Chinese) and the local denomination "CANDARINS".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stanleygibbons.com/collecting-stamps/dispatches/first-china-stamps |title=The Large Dragons of China |date=7 April 2020 |publisher=Stanley Gibbons |access-date=August 21, 2023 }}</ref>

During the late Qing dynasty, various textbooks with the name "Chinese history" (中國歷史) had emerged by the early 20th century. For example, the late Qing textbook "Chinese History of the Present Dynasty" published in 1910 stated that "the history of our present dynasty is part of the history of China, that is, the most recent history in its whole history. China was founded as a country [[Five thousand years of Chinese civilization|5,000 years ago]] and has the longest history in the world. And its culture is the best among all the Eastern countries since ancient times. Its territory covers about 90% of East Asia, and its rise and fall can affect the general trend of the countries in Asia...".<ref name="zhongguoname" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NLC416-14jh007845-69291_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8,%E5%8E%9F%E5%90%8D,%E6%9C%AC%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2%E8%AC%9B%E7%BE%A9.pdf&page=15 |title=中國歷史教科書（原名本朝史講義）第1页 |access-date=2024-06-12 }}</ref> After the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919, educated students began to spread the concept of ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}'', which represented the people, including [[Ethnic minorities in China|55 minority ethnic groups]] and the Han Chinese, with a single culture identifying themselves as "Chinese". The Republic of China and the People's Republic of China both used ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua}}'' in their official names. Thus, ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' became the common name for both governments and {{zhi|t=中國人|s=中国人|p=Zhōngguó rén|out=p}} for their citizens. [[Overseas Chinese]] are referred to as {{zhi|t=華僑|s=华侨|p=huáqiáo|l=Chinese overseas|out=p}}, or {{zhi|t=華裔|s=华裔|p=huáyì|l=Chinese descendants|out=p}}, i.e. Chinese children born overseas.

==== Middle Kingdom ====
The English translation of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhongyuan}} as the "Middle Kingdom" entered European languages through the Portuguese in the 16th century and became popular in the mid-19th century. By the mid-20th century, the term was thoroughly entrenched in the English language, reflecting the Western view of China as the inward-looking Middle Kingdom, or more accurately, the "Central Kingdom" or ''"''Central State''"''. Endymion Wilkinson points out that the Chinese were not unique in thinking of their country as central, although China was the only culture to use the concept for its name.<ref>Wilkinson, p. 132.</ref> However, the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Zhongguo}}'' was not initially used as a name for China. It did not have the same meaning throughout the course of history, ([[#Pre-Qing|see above]]).{{sfn|Wilkinson|2012|p=191}}

During the 19th century, China was alternatively, although less commonly, referred to in the west as the "Middle Flowery Kingdom",<ref>Man and the universe. Japan. Siberia. China, p710</ref> "Central Flowery Kingdom",<ref>Mission Stories of Many Lands, A Book for Young People, p174</ref> or "Central Flowery State",<ref>Mesny's Chinese Miscellany, Volume 2, p3</ref> translated from {{Transliteration|zh|Zhōnghuáguó}} (中華國; 中华国),<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Complete Story of Civilization|last = Durant|first = Will|publisher = Simon & Schuster|year = 2014|isbn = 9781476779713|page = 631|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CfGPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT631}}</ref> or simply the "[[wikt:Flowery Kingdom|Flowery Kingdom]]",<ref>New England Stamp Monthly, Volumes 1-2, p67</ref> translated from {{Transliteration|zh|Huáguó}} (華國; 华国).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Death on the Chang Tang - Tibet, 1950 : the Education of an Anthropologist|author = Frank B. Bessac|publisher = University of Montana Printing & Graphic Services|year = 2006|isbn = 9780977341825|page = 9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m59OAQAAIAAJ&q=%22flowery+kingdom%22+huaguo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Shaanxi Teachers University journal - Philosophy and Social sciences|author = Xi'an, Shaanxi Sheng, China|publisher = 陕西师范大学|year = 1994|isbn = 9780977341825|page = 91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdGAAAAMAAJ&q=%22flowery+kingdom%22}}</ref> However, some have since argued that such a translation (fairly commonly seen at that time) was perhaps caused by misunderstanding the {{Transliteration|zh|Huá}} (華; 华) that means "China" (or "magnificent, splendid") for the {{Transliteration|zh|Huā}} (花) that means "flower".<ref>{{Cite book|title = Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery|author = Patricia Bjaaland Welch|publisher = Tuttle Publishing|year = 2013|isbn = 9781462906895|page = 69|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAPQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA59-IA17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = 29 Chinese Mysteries|last = Pialat|first = François|publisher = AuthorHouse UK|year = 2011|isbn = 9781456789237|page = 69|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDW2VWt3Vj4C&pg=PA69}}</ref>

=== Huaxia ===
{{Main|Huaxia}}

The name {{zhi|t=華夏|s=华夏|p=Huáxià|out=p}} is generally used as a [[sobriquet]] in Chinese text. Under traditional interpretations, it is the combination of two words that originally referred to the elegance of traditional Han attire and [[Li (Confucianism)|the Confucian concept of rites]].
* {{Transliteration|zh|Hua}}'','' which means "flowery beauty" (i.e., having beauty of dress and personal adornment {{zhi|t=有服章之美，謂之華}}).
* {{Transliteration|zh|Xia}}'','' which means greatness or grandeur (i.e., having greatness in social customs, courtesy, polite manners and rites/ceremony {{zhi|t=有禮儀之大，故稱夏}}).<ref>{{zhi|t=孔穎達《春秋左傳正義》：「中國有禮儀之大，故稱夏；有服章之美，謂之華。」}}</ref>

In the original sense, {{Transliteration|zh|Huaxia}} refers to a confederation of tribes—living along the Yellow River—who were the ancestors of what later became the Han ethnic group in China.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} During the Warring States (475–221 BCE), the self-awareness of the {{Transliteration|zh|Huaxia}} identity developed and took hold in ancient China.

=== Zhonghua minzu ===
{{Main|Zhonghua minzu}}

{{Transliteration|zh|Zhonghua minzu}} is a term meaning "Chinese nation" in the sense of a multi-ethnic national identity. Though originally rejected by the PRC{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}, it has been used officially since the 1980s for nationalist politics.

=== Tianchao and Tianxia ===
{{Main|Celestial Empire|Tianxia}}
{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|天朝}}}}; {{lang-zh|p=Tiāncháo}}), translated as 'heavenly dynasty' or 'Celestial Empire',<ref name="tianchao">{{cite book |last=Wang |first=Zhang |title=[[Never Forget National Humiliation|Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations]] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-231-14891-7}}</ref> and {{Transliteration|zh|Tianxia}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|天下}}}}; {{lang-zh|p=Tiānxià}}) translated as '[[All under heaven]]', have both been used to refer to China. These terms were usually used in the context of civil wars or periods of division, with the term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}}'' evoking the idea that the realm's ruling dynasty was appointed by heaven,<ref name=tianchao /> or that whoever ends up reunifying China is said to have ruled ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianxia}}'', or everything under heaven. This fits with the traditional Chinese theory of rulership, in which the emperor was nominally the political leader of the entire world and not merely the leader of a nation-state within the world. Historically, the term was connected to the later [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{BCE|{{circa|1046}}–256}}), especially the [[Spring and Autumn period]] (eighth to fourth century BCE) and the [[Warring States period]] (from there to 221 BCE, when China was reunified by Qin). The phrase ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}}'' continues to see use on Chinese internet discussion boards, in reference to China.<ref name=tianchao />

The phrase ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianchao}}'' was first translated into English and French in the early 19th century, appearing in foreign publications and diplomatic correspondences,<ref name=mailt>{{cite web|url=https://mailtribune.com/archive/-celestial-origins-come-from-long-ago-in-chinese-history|title='Celestial' origins come from long ago in Chinese history|date=20 January 2011|access-date=25 November 2019|work=Mail Tribune|publisher=Rosebud Media LLC|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014440/https://mailtribune.com/archive/-celestial-origins-come-from-long-ago-in-chinese-history|url-status=live}}</ref> with the translated phrase "Celestial Empire" occasionally used to refer to China. During this period, the term ''celestial'' was used by some to refer to the subjects of the Qing in a non-prejudicial manner,<ref name=mailt /> derived from the term "Celestial Empire". However, the term ''celestial'' was also used in a pejorative manner during the 19th century, in reference to Chinese immigrants in Australasia and North America.<ref name=mailt /> The translated phrase has largely fallen into disuse in the 20th century.

=== Jiangshan and Shanhe ===
The two names {{zhi|t=江山|p=Jiāngshān|out=p}} and {{zhi|t=山河|p=Shānhé|out=p}}, both literally 'rivers and mountains', quite similar in usage to ''{{Transliteration|zh|Tianxia}}'', simply referring to the entire world, the most prominent features of which being rivers and mountains. The use of this term is also common as part of the idiom {{zhi|t=江山社稷|p=Jiāngshān shèjì|l=rivers and mountains, soil and grain|out=p}}, in a suggestion of the need to implement good governance.

=== Jiuzhou ===
{{Main|Jiuzhou}}

The name {{Zhi|t={{linktext|九州}}|p=jiǔ zhōu|out=p}} means 'nine provinces'. Widely used in pre-modern Chinese text, the word originated during the middle of the Warring States period. During that time, the [[Yellow River]] region was divided into nine geographical regions. Some people also attribute this word to the mythical hero and king [[Yu the Great]], who, in the legend, divided China into nine provinces during his reign.

=== Han ===
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Han
| t = {{linktext|漢}}
| s = {{linktext|汉}}
| p = Hàn
| gr = Hann
| w = Han⁴
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|}}
| bpmf = ㄏㄢˋ
| j = Hon3
| y = Hon
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|h|on|3|}}
| gan = Hon<sup>5</sup>
| h = Hon<sup>55</sup>
| poj = Hàn
| tl = Hàn
| teo = Hang<sup>3</sup>
| mc = xan<sup>C</sup>
| buc = Háng
| wuu = Hoe<sup>去</sup>
| kana = かん
| kanji = {{lang|ja|漢}}
| romaji = kan
| hangul = 한
| hanja = {{lang|ko|漢}}
| rr = han
| qn = Hán
| showflag = p
| chuhan = 漢
}}

The name {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} ({{zhi|t=漢|s=汉|p=Hàn}}) derives from the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC–AD 220), which presided over China's first "golden age".. The Han dynasty collapsed in 220 and was followed by a long period of disorder, including the [[Three Kingdoms]], [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], and [[Southern and Northern dynasties]]. During these periods, various non-Han ethnic groups established various dynasties in northern China. People began to use the term {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} to refer to the natives of North China, who, unlike the minorities, were the descendants of the subjects of the Han dynasty.

During the [[Yuan dynasty]], subjects of the empire were divided into four classes: [[Mongols]], [[Semu]], Han, and "Southerners". Northern Chinese were called {{Transliteration|zh|Han}}, which was considered to be the highest class of Chinese. This class, {{Transliteration|zh|Han}}, includes all ethnic groups in northern China, including [[Khitan people|Khitan]] and [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] who have, for the most part, sinicized during the last two hundreds years. The name {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} became popularly accepted during this time.

During the Qing, the Manchu rulers also used the name {{Transliteration|zh|Han}} to distinguish the natives of the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]] from the Manchus. After the fall of the Qing government, the Han became the name of a nationality within China. Today, the term "Han persons", often rendered in English as "Han Chinese", is used by the People's Republic of China to refer to the most populous of the 56 [[List of Chinese nationalities|officially recognized ethnic groups]] in China.

=== Tang ===
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Tang
| c = {{linktext|唐}}
| p = Táng
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|t|ang|2}}
| gr = Tarng
| w = Tʻang²
| bpmf = ㄊㄤˊ
| gan = Tong
| poj = Tông/Tn̂g
| tl = Tông/Tn̂g
| wuu = Daon<sup>平</sup>
| j = Tong4
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|t|ong|4}}
| y = Tòhng
| h = Tong<sup>11</sup>
| kana = とう <small>([[On'yomi|On]])</small>, から <small>([[Kun'yomi|Kun]])</small>
| romaji = tō <small>([[On'yomi|On]])</small>, kara <small>([[Kun'yomi|Kun]])</small>
| kanji = {{lang|ja|唐}}
| hangul = 당
| hanja = {{lang|ko|唐}}
| rr = dang
| qn = Đường
| showflag = p
| chuhan = 唐
}}

The name {{Transliteration|zh|Tang}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|唐}}|p=Táng}}) comes from the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) that presided over China's second golden age. It was during the Tang dynasty that South China was finally and fully [[sinicized]]. {{Transliteration|zh|Tang}} would become synonymous with China in Southern China, and it is usually Southern Chinese who refer to themselves as "People of Tang" ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|唐人}}}}, {{lang-zh|p=Tángrén}}).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbDdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 |title=China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary |first= Michael|last= Dillon |date=13 September 2013 |page=132 |isbn=978-1-136-79141-3 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> For example, the sinicization and rapid development of [[Guangdong]] during the Tang period would lead the Cantonese to refer to themselves as {{Transliteration|zh|Tong-yan}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|唐人}}}}) in Cantonese, while China is called {{Transliteration|zh|Tong-saan}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|唐山}}}}; {{lang-zh|p=Tángshān|l=Tang Mountain|links=no}}).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZjruI0_XmcC&pg=PA7 |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions|author= H. Mark Lai |pages=7–8 |isbn=978-0-7591-0458-7 |publisher=AltaMira Press |date=4 May 2004}}</ref> [[Chinatown]]s worldwide, often dominated by Southern Chinese, also became referred to as ''Tang People's Street'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|唐人街}}}}, Cantonese: Tong-yan-gaai; {{lang-zh|p=Tángrénjiē|links=no}}). The Cantonese term {{Transliteration|omy|Tongsan}} (Tang mountain) is recorded in [[Old Malay]] as one of the local terms for China, along with the Sanskrit-derived {{Transliteration|omy|Cina}}. It is still used in Malaysia today, usually in a derogatory sense.

Among Taiwanese, ''Tang mountain'' (Min-Nan: {{Transliteration|nan|Tng-soa}}) has been used, for example, in the saying, "has Tangshan father, no Tangshan mother" ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=有唐山公，無唐山媽}}; {{lang-zh|poj=Ū Tn̂g-soaⁿ kong, bô Tn̂g-soaⁿ má}}).<ref>{{cite book |last=Tai |first=Pao-tsun |title = The Concise History of Taiwan |edition = Chinese-English bilingual |year = 2007 |publisher = Taiwan Historica |location = Nantou City |isbn = 9789860109504 |page = 52 }}</ref><ref><span lang="zh-Hant">{{holodict|60161|e=有唐山公，無唐山媽。}}</span></ref> This refers to how the Han people crossing the [[Taiwan Strait]] in the 17th and 18th centuries were mostly men, and that many of their offspring would be through intermarriage with [[Taiwanese aborigine]] women.

In [[Okinawan language|Ryukyuan]], [[karate]] was originally called {{Transliteration|ryu|tii}} ({{lang|ja|手}}, hand) or {{Transliteration|ryu|karatii}} ({{lang|ja|唐手}}, Tang hand) because {{lang|ja|唐ぬ國}} {{Transliteration|ryu|too-nu-kuku}} or {{Transliteration|ryu|kara-nu-kuku}} ({{lang|ja|唐ぬ國}}) was a common [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuan]] name for China; it was changed to {{Transliteration|ryu|karate}} ({{lang|ja|空手}}, open hand) to appeal to Japanese people after the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].

[[Zhu Yu (author)|Zhu Yu]], who wrote during the Northern Song dynasty, noted that the name "Han" was first used by the northwestern 'barbarians' to refer to China, while the name "Tang" was first used by the southeastern 'barbarians' to refer to China, and these terms subsequently influenced the local Chinese terminology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tackett |first1=Nicolas |title=Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-19677-3 |page=4}}</ref> During the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Japanese distinguished between the "Han" of northern China, who, like the Mongols and Koreans, were not to be taken prisoner, and the Newly Submitted Army of southern China, whom they called "Tang", who would be enslaved instead.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zuikei Shuho and Charlotte von Verschuer |title=Japan's Foreign Relations from 1200 to 1392 A.D.: A Translation from "Zenrin Kokuhōki" |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |date=2002 |volume=57 |issue=4 |page=432}}</ref>

=== Dalu and Neidi ===
{{Transliteration|zh|Dàlù}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|大陸}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|大陆}}; {{lang-zh|p=dàlù}}), literally "big continent" or "mainland" in this context, is used as a short form of {{Transliteration|zh|Zhōnggúo Dàlù}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|中國大陸}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|中国大陆}}, mainland China), excluding (depending on the context) Hong Kong, [[Macau]], or Taiwan. This term is used in official contexts on both the mainland and Taiwan when referring to the mainland as opposed to Taiwan. In certain contexts, it is equivalent to the term {{Transliteration|zh|Neidi}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|内地}}; {{lang-zh|p=nèidì}}, literally "the inner land"). While ''{{Transliteration|zh|Neidi}}'' generally refers to the interior as opposed to a particular coastal or border location, or the coastal or border regions generally, it is used in Hong Kong specifically to mean mainland China, excluding Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. {{Citation needed span|text=Increasingly, it is also being used in an official context within mainland China|date=January 2024}}, for example, in reference to the separate judicial and customs jurisdictions of mainland China on the one hand and Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan on the other.

The term ''{{Transliteration|zh|Neidi}}'' is also often used in Xinjiang and Tibet to distinguish the eastern provinces of China from the minority-populated, autonomous regions of the west.