Editing Mitanni (section)

==Etymology==
===Mitanni===
{{hiero|1=mꜥṯn(j)<ref name = Gauthier25/><ref name = Budge999/> |2=<hiero>G17-D38:V13:N35-N25</hiero>|era=nk|align=right}}
The earliest recorded form of the name of this state is {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|Maitanni}}. This has usually been explained as a portmanteau of the Hurrian suffix {{transliteration|xhu|-nni}} and the Indo-Aryan stem {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|maita-}}, meaning "to unite" and comparable with the [[Sanskrit]] verb {{transliteration|sa|mith}} ({{lang|sa|मिथ्}}; {{lit|to unite, pair, couple, meet}}). The name {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|Maitanni}} thus meant the "united kingdom."{{sfn|Fournet|2010|p=11}} Paralleling the evolution of Proto-Indo-Aryan {{transliteration|inc-x-proto|máytʰati}}, meaning {{lit|he unites}}, into Sanskrit {{transliteration|sa|méthati}} ({{lang|sa|मेथति}}), the name {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|Maitanni}} evolved into the later form {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|Mitanni}}, where the stem {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|maita-}} had given way to {{transliteration|inc-x-mitanni|mita-}}.{{sfn|Fournet|2010|p=11}}

However, Gernot Wilhelm (1997) and Andrea Trameri (2024) have instead suggested that that ''Maitani'' means "of M(a)itta," the name of "an individual leader (or clan), and not a territory or population."<ref>Gernot Wilhelm (1997: 290), cited by Andrea Trameri (15 October 2024) Trameri, Andrea, (2024). [https://brill.com/display/book/9789004704312/BP000015.xml Kizzuwatna. History of Cilicia in the Middle and Late Bronze Age (ca. 2000-1200 BC)], Brill, p. 206: "The kingdom itself was named after an individual leader (or clan?), and not a territiry or population (Maitani, i.e. 'of M(a)itta'; Wilhelm 1997; 290)."</ref>

===Ḫani-Rabbat===
The Mitanni kingdom was firstly known as ''Ḫabingalbat'' before 1600 BC in Babylonia, during the reign of [[Ammi-Saduqa]], attested as ''ḫa-bi-in-gal-ba-ti-i'', and ''ḫa-bi-in-ga-al-ba-at'', in two texts of the late [[Old Babylonian Empire|Old Babylonian period]].<ref name="van Koppen, Frans, (2004)">van Koppen, Frans, (2004). [https://www.academia.edu/2462202/_The_Geography_of_the_Slave_Trade_and_Northern_Mesopotamia_in_the_Late_Old_Babylonian_Period_in_H_Hunger_and_R_Pruzsinszky_ed_Mesopotamian_Dark_Age_Revisited_Vienna_%C3%96sterreichische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften_2004_9_3 "The Geography of the Slave Trade and Northern Mesopotamia in the Late Old Babylonian Period"], in: H. Hunger and R. Pruzsinszky (eds.), ''Mesopotamian Dark Age Revisited'', Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, p. 21, and '''footnote 65:''' "An unpublished Old Babylonian text dated to [[Ammi-Saduqa|Ammi-saduqa]] (circa 1600 B.C.), the knowledge of which I owe to the kindness of Mr. Douglas Kennedy of the Centre National de Recherches de Paris, deals with the issue of beer to the tu-ur-gu-ma-an-ni ša éren ḫa-bi-in-gal-ba-ti-i ‘the dragomans of the Hanigalbatian soldiers/workers’"[quoting Gelb 1968: 97], and "...A personnel register, probably also from the reign of Ammisaduqa, mentions the person ib-ba-tum éren ḫa-bi-in-ga-al-ba-at (BM96955 iii 9)..."</ref><ref name="von Dassow, Eva, (2022)"/> Egyptians referred to it as ''[[Naharin]]'' and ''Mitanni'',<ref name = Gauthier25>{{cite book |last1=Gauthier |first1=Henri |title=Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 3 |date=1926 |page=25 |url=https://archive.org/details/Gauthier1926/page/n15}}</ref><ref name = Budge999>{{cite book |last1=Wallis Budge |first1=E. A. |title=An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary: with an index of English words, king list and geological list with indexes, list of hieroglyphic characters, Coptic and Semitic alphabets, etc. Vol II |date=1920 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/egyptianhierogly02budguoft/page/999 999] |url=https://archive.org/details/egyptianhierogly02budguoft}}</ref> it was ''Ḫurri'' to the Hittites, and ''Ḫanigalbat'' or ''Ḫani-Rabbat'' to the Assyrians. These names seem to have referred to the same kingdom and were often used interchangeably, according to Michael C. Astour.<ref>Astour, "Ḫattusilis̆, Ḫalab, and Ḫanigalbat" ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' '''31'''.2 (April 1972:102&ndash;109) p 103.</ref> Hittite annals mention a people called ''Hurri'' (''{{transliteration|hit|Ḫu-ur-ri}}''), located in northeastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of [[Mursili I]], mentions a "King of the Hurri," and the [[Akkadian language|Assyro-Akkadian]] version of the text renders "Hurri" as ''Hanigalbat''. Tushratta, who styles himself "king of Mitanni" in his [[Amarna letters|Akkadian Amarna letters]], refers to his kingdom as Hanigalbat.<ref>Astour 1972:103, noting Amarna letters 18:9; 20:17;29:49.</ref>

The earliest attestation of the term ''Ḫanigalbat'' can be read in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], along with the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] version mentioning "the Hurrian enemy,"<ref>De Martino, Stefano, (2018). [https://iris.unito.it/handle/2318/1685098#.X1BUcIvB_IU "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia"], in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE, Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag, '''p. 37''': "...The term Ḫanigalbat first occurs in the Akkadian version of the Annals of Ḫattušili I... whereas the Hittite version uses the generic expression 'the Hurrian enemy,' as do two old Babylonian texts... perhaps this term refers to the Hurrian "progenitor" of Mittani..."</ref> in a copy from the 13th century BC of the "Annals of [[Ḫattušili I]],"<ref name="Bryce">Bryce, Trevor R., (2018). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338001738_The_Annals_and_Lost_Golden_Statue_of_the_Hittite_King_Hattusili_I "The Annals and Lost Golden Statue of the Hittite King Hattusili I"], in Gephyra 16, November 2018, '''p. 3:''' "Like most other Hittite documents, the Annals have survived only in a late 13th century copy, the last in a line of copies made over several centuries. There are generally only minor variations between the Hittite and Akkadian versions of the text. Consistent with van den Hout's proposals, I have suggested that the document was first composed in Akkadian and later translated into Hittite – contra the suggestions that both versions were composed at the same time or that the Akkadian version was translated from an original Hittite one."</ref> who possibly reigned after 1630 BC.<ref>Yener, Aslihan K., (2021). [https://www.academia.edu/61046107/Some_Thoughts_about_Middle_Bronze_Age_Alalakh_and_Ugarit_Reassessing_an_Alalakh_Wall_Painting_with_Archival_Data "Some Thoughts about Middle Bronze Age Alalakh and Ugarit: Reassessing an Alalakh Wall Painting with Archival Data"], in: Ougarit, un anniversaire, Bilans et recherches en cours, Peeters, Leuven-Paris-Bristol, '''p. 579''': "...the Level VII Palace [was destroyed] by Hattusili I in his second year, 1628 BC (middle chronology)..."</ref>

The reading of the Assyrian term ''Ḫanigalbat'' has a history of multiple renderings. The first portion has been connected to, "{{cuneiform|𒄩𒉡}} ''{{transliteration|akk|Ḫa-nu}}''," "Hanu" or "Hana," first attested in [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] to describe nomadic inhabitants along the southern shore of the northern [[Euphrates]] region, near the vicinity of [[Terqa]] (capital of the [[Kingdom of Khana|Kingdom of Hana]]) and the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] River. The term developed into more than just a designation for a people group, but also took on a topographic aspect as well. In the [[Middle Assyrian Empire|Middle Assyrian period]], a phrase "{{cuneiform|𒌷𒆳𒄩𒉡𒀭𒋫}}" "''{{transliteration|akk|<sup>URU</sup>KUR Ḫa-nu AN.TA}}''," "cities of the Upper Hanu" has suggested that there was a distinction between two different Hanu's, likely across each side of the river. This northern side designation spans much of the core territory of Mitanni state.

The two signs that have led to variant readings are "{{cuneiform|𒃲}} ''{{transliteration|akk|gal}}''" and its alternative form "{{cuneiform|𒆗}} ''{{transliteration|akk|gal<sub>9</sub>}}''". The first attempts at decipherment in the late 19th century rendered forms interpreting "''gal''," meaning "great" in Sumerian, as a logogram for Akkadian "''rab''" having the same meaning; "Ḫani-Rabbat" denoting "the Great Hani". [[Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon|J. A. Knudtzon]], and [[E. A. Speiser]] after him, supported instead the reading of "''gal''" on the basis of its alternative spelling with "''gal<sub>9</sub>''", which has since become the majority view.

There is still a difficulty to explain the suffix "''-bat''" if the first sign did not end in "''b''," or the apparent similarity to the Semitic feminine ending "''-at''," if derived from a Hurrian word. More recently, in 2011, scholar Miguel Valério,<ref>[https://unibo.academia.edu/MiguelVal%C3%A9rio Miguel Valério], Università di Bologna, Dipartimento di Filologia classica e Italianistica (FICLIT).</ref> then at the [[New University of Lisbon]] provided detailed support in favor of the older reading ''Hani-Rabbat''.<ref>Valério, Miguel, (2011). [https://www.academia.edu/670734/2011_Hani_Rabbat_as_the_Semitic_Name_of_Mitanni "Hani-Rabbat as the Semitic Name of Mitanni"], in Journal of Language Relationship, International Scientific Periodical Nº6 (2011), Russian State University for the Humanities, Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, '''p. 174''': "...The present essay intends to rehabilitate Hani-Rabbat as the accurate normalization of the Assyrian name of Mitanni, by showing the unmotivated nature of the alternative Hanigalbat as opposed to the more substantiated reading of GAL as rab in the spelling of this toponym..."</ref> The re-reading makes an argument on the basis of frequency, where "''gal''" not "''gal<sub>9</sub>''," is far more numerous; the later being the deviation found in six documents, all from the periphery of the Akkadian sphere of influence. It is additionally argued that although they are graphically distinct, there is a high degree of overlap between the two signs, as "''gal<sub>9</sub>''" denotes "''dannum''" or ""strong"" opposed to "great", easily being used as synonyms. Both signs also represent correlative readings; alternative readings of "''gal<sub>9</sub>''" include "''rib''" and "''rip''," just like "''gal''" being read as "''rab''."

The situation is complicated by there being, according to linguists, three separate dialects of Hurrian, central-western, northern, and eastern.<ref>Astour, Michael C.. "A Reconstruction of the History of Ebla (Part 2)". Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4, edited by Cyrus H. Gordon and Gary A. Rendsburg, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 57-196</ref>

The Egyptians considered the Euphrates River to form the boundary between Syria and ''Naharain''.<ref>Spalinger, Anthony. "A New Reference to an Egyptian Campaign of Thutmose III in Asia." Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 37, no. 1, 1978, pp. 35–41</ref>