Editing Max Horkheimer (section)

==Biography==
===Early life===
On 14 February 1895, Horkheimer was born the only son of Moritz and Babetta Horkheimer. Horkheimer was born into a conservative, wealthy [[Orthodox Jewish]] family. His father was a successful businessman who owned several textile factories in the Zuffenhausen district of [[Stuttgart]], where Max was born.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu">{{cite web | last=Berendzen | first=J.C. |editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N. | title=Max Horkheimer | website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=24 June 2009 |others=Fall 2013 | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/horkheimer/ | access-date=14 May 2022}}</ref> Moritz expected his son to follow in his footsteps and own the family business.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/>

Max was taken out of school in 1910 to work in the family business, where he eventually became a junior manager. During this period he would begin two relationships that would last for the rest of his life. First, he met [[Friedrich Pollock]], who would later become a close academic colleague, and who would remain Max's closest friend. He also met Rose Riekher, his father's personal secretary. Eight years Max's senior, a Christian, and from a lower economic class, Riekher (whom Max called "Maidon") was not considered a suitable match by Moritz Horkheimer. Despite this, Max and Maidon would marry in 1926 and remain together until her death in 1969.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu" />

In 1917, his manufacturing career ended and his chances of taking over his family business were interrupted when he was drafted into [[World War I]].<ref name="Reason, Nostalgia 1985 pp. 160-181">Reason, Nostalgia, and Eschatology in the Critical Theory of Max Horkheimer Brian J. Shaw The Journal of Politics, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Feb. 1985), pp. 160–181.</ref> However, Horkheimer avoided service, being rejected on medical grounds.

===Education===
In the spring of 1919, after failing an army physical,<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/> Horkheimer enrolled at [[Munich University]]. While living in Munich, he was mistaken for the revolutionary playwright [[Ernst Toller]] and arrested and imprisoned.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Horkheimer, Max – Oxford Reference|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199532919.001.0001/acref-9780199532919-e-330|doi=10.1093/acref/9780199532919.001.0001|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-953291-9|chapter=Horkheimer, Max|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

After being released, Horkheimer moved to [[Frankfurt am Main]], where he studied [[philosophy]] and [[psychology]] under [[Hans Cornelius]].<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/> There, he met [[Theodor Adorno]], several years his junior, with whom he would strike a lasting friendship and a collaborative relationship. After an abortive attempt at writing a dissertation on [[Gestalt psychology]], Horkheimer, with Cornelius's direction, completed his doctorate in [[philosophy]] with a 78-page [[dissertation]] titled ''The [[Antinomy]] of [[Teleological]] Judgment'' ({{Lang|de|Zur Antinomie der teleologischen Urteilskraft}}).<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/><ref name="Sica 2005">Sica, Alan. ''Social Thought: From the Enlightenment to The Present''. Pennsylvania State University: Pearson, Inc. 2005.{{page needed|date=May 2020}}</ref>

In 1925, Horkheimer was [[habilitation|habilitated]] with a dissertation entitled ''[[Kant]]'s [[Critique of Judgment]] as Mediation between Practical and Theoretical Philosophy'' ({{Lang|de|Über Kants Kritik der Urteilskraft als Bindeglied zwischen theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie}}). Here, he met Friedrich Pollock, who would be his colleague at the [[University of Frankfurt Institute for Social Research]]. The following year, Max was appointed ''[[Privatdozent]].'' Shortly after, in 1926, Horkheimer married Rose Riekher.<ref name="Sica 2005"/>

===Institute of Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung)===
In 1926, Horkheimer was an "unsalaried lecturer in Frankfurt." Shortly after, in 1930, he was promoted to professor of philosophy at the [[University of Frankfurt am Main]]. In the same year, when the [[University of Frankfurt Institute for Social Research|Institute for Social Research]]'s directorship became vacant, after the departure of [[Carl Grünberg]], Horkheimer was elected to the position "by means of an endowment from a wealthy businessman".<ref name="Sica, Alan 2005">Sica, Alan., ed. 2005. Social Thought: From the Enlightenment to the Present. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. p. 542.</ref> The Institute had had its beginnings in a [[Marxist]] study group started by [[Felix Weil]], a one-time student of political science at Frankfurt who used his inheritance to fund the group as a way to support his leftist academic aims. Pollock and Horkheimer were partners with Weil in the early activities of the institute.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/>

Horkheimer worked to make the Institute a purely academic enterprise.<ref name="Callinicos, Alex T 2007">Callinicos, Alex T. 2007. ''Social Theory: A Historical Introduction''. 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.</ref> As director, he changed the institute from an orthodox Marxist school to a heterodox school for critical social research.<ref>Elliot, Anthony and Larry Ray, eds. 2003. Key Contemporary Social Theorists. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. p. 163.</ref> The following year publication of the institute's ''Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung'' began, with Horkheimer as its editor.<ref name="marxists">{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/h/o.htm#horkheimer-max |title=Glossary of People: Ho |publisher=marxists.org|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>

Horkheimer intellectually reoriented the institute, proposing a programme of collective research aimed at specific social groups (specifically the working class) that would highlight the problem of the relationship between history and reason. The Institute focused on integrating the views of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Sigmund Freud]]. The Frankfurt School attempted this by systematically hitching together the different conceptual structures of historical materialism and psychoanalysis.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

During the time between Horkheimer's being named Professor of Social Philosophy and director of the Institute in 1930, the Nazi party became the second largest party in the Reichstag. In the midst of the violence surrounding the Nazis' rise, Horkheimer and his associates began to prepare for the possibility of moving the Institute out of Germany. Horkheimer's ''[[venia legendi]]'' was revoked by the new [[Nazi]] government because of the Marxian nature of the institute's ideas as well as its prominent Jewish association. When Hitler was named the Chancellor in 1933,<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/> the institute was thus forced to close its location in Germany.

He emigrated to [[Geneva, Switzerland]], and then to [[New York City]] the following year, where Horkheimer met with [[president of Columbia University]] [[Nicholas Murray Butler]] to discuss hosting the institute. To Horkheimer's surprise, the president agreed to host the Institute in exile as well as offer Horkheimer a building for the institute.<ref name="mit">{{cite web |url=http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=6063 |title=Biography of Horkheimer at MIT Press |publisher=mitpress.mit.edu |access-date=14 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008093915/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=6063 |archive-date=8 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>Ritzer, George. 2011. Sociological Theory. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> In July 1934, Horkheimer accepted an offer from [[Columbia University]] to relocate the institute to one of their buildings.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/>

In 1940, Horkheimer received American citizenship and moved to the [[Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, California|Pacific Palisades]] district of [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], where his collaboration with Adorno would yield the ''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]].'' In 1942, Horkheimer assumed the directorship of the Scientific Division of the [[American Jewish Committee]]. In this capacity, he helped launch and organize a series of five Studies in Prejudice, which were published in 1949 and 1950. The most important of these was the pioneering study in social psychology entitled ''The Authoritarian Personality'', itself a methodologically advanced reworking of some of the themes treated in a collective project produced by the Institute in its first years of exile, Studies in Authority and Family.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3129918|title = Max Horkheimer (1895–1973)|journal = Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association|volume = 47|pages = 219–220|last1 = Jay|first1 = Martin|year = 1973}}</ref>

In the years that followed, Horkheimer did not publish much, although he continued to edit ''Studies in Philosophy and Social Science'' as a continuation of the ''Zeitschrift.'' In 1949, he returned to Frankfurt, where the Institute for Social Research reopened in 1950. Between 1951 and 1953 Horkheimer was [[Rector (academia)|rector]] of the [[University of Frankfurt am Main]]. In 1953, Horkheimer stepped down from director of the Institute and took on a smaller role in the institute, while Adorno became director.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ffst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/horkheimer.htm |title=Biography of Horkheimer at University of Haifa |access-date=15 July 2007 |archive-date=17 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717202100/http://www.ffst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/horkheimer.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Later years===
Horkheimer continued to teach at the university until his retirement in the mid-1960s. In 1953, he was awarded the [[Goethe Plaque of the City of Frankfurt]], and was later named an honorary citizen of Frankfurt for life.<ref name="stanford">{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/horkheimer/|title=Max Horkheimer (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)|publisher=plato.stanford.edu|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> He returned to the United States in 1954 and 1959 to lecture as a frequent visiting professor at the [[University of Chicago]]. In the late 1960s, Horkheimer supported [[Pope Paul VI]]'s stand against artificial contraception, specifically [[the pill]], arguing that it would lead to the end of romantic love.<ref>{{Cite book |title = Frankfurt School: Vol. 2|isbn = 978-0-415-05856-8 |year = 1994|page = 296|publisher = Taylor & Francis}}</ref>

===Legacy===
He remained an important figure until his death in [[Nuremberg]] in 1973. Max Horkheimer with the help of Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Leo Löwenthal, Otto Kirchheimer, Frederick Pollock and Franz Neumann developed "Critical Theory". According to Larry Ray "Critical Theory" has "become one of the most influential social theories of the twentieth century".<ref>Elliot, Anthony and Larry Ray (eds.). 2003. ''Key Contemporary Social Theorists''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. p. 162.</ref>