Editing Maurice (emperor) (section)

==Life==
===Origins and early life===
Maurice was born in [[Arabissus]] in [[Cappadocia]] in 539. His father was [[Paul (father of Maurice)|Paul]]. He had one brother, [[Peter (curopalates)|Peter]], and two sisters, Theoctista and Gordia, the latter of whom was later the wife of the general [[Philippicus (comes excubitorum)|Philippicus]].{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=855}} He is recorded to have been a native Greek speaker, unlike the previous emperors since [[Anastasius I Dicorus]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=227}} Eastern Roman sources call him a [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian]].{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=855}} [[Paul the Deacon]], a late 8th-century [[Lombards|Lombard]] writer, calls him the first emperor "from the race of the Greeks".{{sfn|Stark|2012|p=390}}<ref>{{harvnb|Corradini|2006|p=57}}: "Emperor Maurice who is said to be the first emperor "from the race of the Greeks," ex Graecorum genere."</ref> [[Evagrius Scholasticus|Evagrius]], writing under Maurice's reign, declared he traced his lines to [[Rome|Old Rome]], which could be either truth or a flattery.{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=855}} One legend makes an unresolved claim that he was [[Armenians|Armenian]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=1318}}: "the question of his ethnic origin remains unresolved"</ref>

Maurice first came to [[Constantinople]] as a ''[[notarius]]'' to serve as secretary to [[Tiberius II|Tiberius]], the ''[[comes excubitorum]]'' (commander of the [[Excubitors]], the imperial bodyguard). When Tiberius was named ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' in 574, Maurice was appointed to succeed him as ''comes excubitorum''.{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=856}}

===Persian War and accession to the throne===
[[File:Roman-Persian Frontier in Late Antiquity.svg|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Roman-Persian frontier showing Maurice's gains after he restored Sassanid king Khosrow II to the throne in 591.]]
{{details|Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591}}
In late 577, despite a complete lack of military experience, Maurice was named as ''[[magister militum]] per [[Diocese of the East|Orientem]]'', effectively commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army in the east. He succeeded General [[Justinian (magister militum per Orientem)|Justinian]] in the [[Roman–Persian War of 572–591|ongoing war]] against [[Sassanid Persia]]. At about the same time he was raised to the rank of ''[[patrikios]]'', the empire's senior honorific title, which was limited to a small number of holders.{{sfn|Martindale|1992|pp=856–857}} 

In 578, a truce in Mesopotamia came to an end and the main focus of the war shifted to that front. After Persian raids in Mesopotamia, Maurice mounted attacks on both sides of the Tigris, captured the fortress of Aphumon and sacked [[Singara]]. Sassanid emperor Khosrow sought peace in 579, but died before an agreement could be reached and his successor [[Hormizd IV]] (r. 579–590) broke off the negotiations.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=160–162}}.</ref> In 580, Byzantium's Arab allies the Ghassanids scored a victory over the Lakhmids, Arab allies of the Sassanids, while Byzantine raids again penetrated east of the Tigris. Around this time the future [[Khosrow II]] was put in charge of the situation in Armenia, where he succeeded in convincing most of the rebel leaders to return to Sassanid allegiance, although Iberia remained loyal to the Byzantines.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=162–163}}</ref>

The following year an ambitious campaign by Maurice, supported by Ghassanid forces under [[al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith|al-Mundhir III]], targeted [[Ctesiphon]], the Sassanid capital. The combined force moved south along the river [[Euphrates]] accompanied by a fleet of ships. The army stormed the fortress of Anatha and moved on until it reached the region of [[Beth Aramaye]] in central [[Mesopotamia]], near Ctesiphon. There they found the bridge over the Euphrates destroyed by the Persians.<ref name="581 Expedition">{{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|pp=413–419}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=163–165}}</ref> 

In response to Maurice's advance, Sassanid general [[Adarmahan]] was ordered to operate in northern Mesopotamia, threatening the Roman army's supply line.<ref>{{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|p=414}}.</ref> Adarmahan pillaged [[Osrhoene]], and was successful in capturing its capital, [[Edessa]]. He then marched his army toward [[Raqqa|Callinicum]] on the Euphrates. With the possibility of a march to Ctesiphon gone Maurice was forced to retreat. The retreat was arduous for the tired army, and Maurice and al-Mundhir exchanged recriminations for the expedition's failure. However, they cooperated in forcing Adarmahan to withdraw, and defeated him at [[Raqqa|Callinicum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|p=416}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=165}}</ref>

The mutual recriminations were not laid to rest by this. Despite his successes, al-Mundhir was accused by Maurice of treason during the preceding campaign. Maurice claimed that al-Mundhir had revealed the Byzantine plan to the Persians, who then proceeded to destroy the bridge over the Euphrates. The chronicler John of Ephesus explicitly calls this assertion a lie, as the Byzantine intentions must have been plain to the Persian commanders.<ref name="GL164">{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=164}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|pp=439–443}}</ref> 

Both Maurice and al-Mundhir wrote letters to Emperor Tiberius, who tried to reconcile them. Maurice visited Constantinople himself, where he was able to persuade Tiberius of al-Mundhir's guilt.<ref name="GL164"/> The charge of treason is almost universally dismissed by modern historians; [[Irfan Shahîd]] says that it probably had more to do with Maurice's dislike of the veteran and militarily successful Arab ruler. This was compounded by the Byzantines' habitual distrust of the "[[barbarian]]" and supposedly innately traitorous Arabs, as well as by al-Mundhir's staunchly Monophysite faith.<ref>{{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|pp=444–455}}</ref> Al-Mundhir was arrested the following year on suspicion of treachery, triggering war between Byzantines and Ghassanids and marking the beginning of the end of the Ghassanid kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=163–166}}</ref>

[[File:Girdle with Coins and Medallions MET dp30688 (cropped).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Gold medallion of Maurice circa 583, from a girdle found in Karavas, near Kyrenia, Cyprus.]]

In June of 582 Maurice scored a decisive victory against Adarmahan near [[Constantina (Osrhoene)|Constantina]]. Adarmahan barely escaped the field, while his co-commander [[Tamkhosrau]] was killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Martindale|1992|pp=859, 1215}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=166}}</ref> In the same month Emperor Tiberius was struck down by an illness which shortly thereafter killed him. In this state Tiberius initially named two heirs, each of whom was to marry one of his daughters. Maurice was betrothed to [[Constantina (empress)|Constantina]], and [[Germanus (Caesar)|Germanus]], related to emperor [[Justinian I]], was married to Charito. Some historians believe that the plan was to divide the empire in two, with Maurice receiving the eastern provinces and Germanus the western.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=226}} 

On 5 August, Tiberius was on his deathbed and civilian, military and ecclesiastical dignitaries awaited the appointment of his successor. He then chose Maurice and named him ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'', after which he adopted the name "Tiberius". [[John of Nikiû]] and [[Theophanes the Confessor]] write that Germanus was proclaimed ''caesar'' at the same time. However, on 11 August 582, only Maurice is recorded as ''Caesar'' in the subscription of a law of Tiberius.{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=529}} According to John of Nikiû, Germanus was Tiberius' favored candidate for the throne but declined out of humility.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm |title=John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. Chapter XCV (95), 25–26. 1916 translation by R. H. Charles|access-date=29 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109164225/http://tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm |archive-date=9 January 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Maurice was [[coronation of the Byzantine emperor|crowned emperor]] soon after, on 13 August.<ref>''[[Chronicon Paschale]]'' [https://archive.org/details/chronicon-p/page/139/mode/1up (Olympiad 340)]</ref>{{sfn|Martindale|1992|pp=859–860}} Tiberius had reportedly prepared a speech on the matter but at this point was too weak to speak. The ''[[quaestor sacri palatii]]'' (the senior judicial official of the empire) read it for him. The speech proclaimed Maurice as ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' and sole successor to the throne. On 14 August 582 Tiberius died. Maurice became sole emperor, marrying Constantina in the autumn.{{sfn|Garland|1999}}

Shortly after his ascension the advantage he had gained at the Battle of Constantina was lost when his successor as ''magister militum'' of the east, [[John Mystacon]], was defeated at the River Nymphios by [[Kardarigan (6th century)|Kardarigan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=166–167}}.</ref> The situation was difficult:{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|pp=74–75}} Maurice ruled a bankrupt Empire;{{sfn|Norwich|1988|p=275}} it was at war with Persia; he was paying extremely high tribute to the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], 80,000 gold [[solidi]] a year;{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p=406}} and the Balkan provinces were being thoroughly devastated by the [[Slavs]].{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=379}}
[[File:Follis Maurice Constantinople.jpg|thumb|300px|left|''[[Follis]]'' with Maurice in consular uniform]]

Maurice had to continue the war against the Persians. In 586 his troops defeated them at the [[Battle of Solachon]] south of [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]]. In 588, a mutiny by unpaid Byzantine troops against their new commander, [[Priscus (magister militum)|Priscus]], seemed to offer the Sassanids a chance for a breakthrough, but the mutineers themselves repulsed the ensuing Persian offensive.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=170}}</ref> Later in the year they secured a [[Battle of Martyropolis (588)|major victory]] before [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]]. The Sassanid commander, [[Maruzas]], was killed, several of the Persian leaders were captured along with 3,000 other prisoners, and only a thousand men survived to reach refuge at Nisibis. The Byzantines secured much booty, including the Persian battle standards, and sent them, along with Maruzas' head, to Maurice in Constantinople. 

In 590, two [[Parthia]]n brothers, [[Vistahm]] and [[Vinduyih]], overthrew King [[Hormizd IV]] and made the latter's son, Prince [[Khosrow II]], the new king. The former Persian commander-in-chief, [[Bahram Chobin]], [[Sasanian civil war of 589–591|who had rebelled against Hormizd IV]], claimed the throne for himself and defeated Khosrow. Khosrow and the two Parthians fled to the Byzantine court. Although the Senate unanimously advised against it, Maurice helped Khosrow regain his throne with an army of 35,000 men. In 591 the combined Byzantine-Persian army under generals [[John Mystacon]] and [[Narses (magister militum per Orientem)|Narses]] defeated Bahram Chobin's forces near [[Ganzak]] at the [[Battle of the Blarathon]]. The victory was decisive; Maurice finally brought the war to a successful conclusion with the re-accession of Khosrow.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=73}}{{sfn|Norwich|1988|pp=273–274}}

Subsequently, Khosrow was adopted by the emperor in order to seal their alliance. The adoption was made through a rite of ''adoptio per arma'', which ordinarily assumed the Christian character of its partakers.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=164}} However, the chief Byzantine bishops, "despite their best attempts", failed to convert Khosrow.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=164}} Khosrow rewarded Maurice by ceding to the empire western [[Armenia]] up to the lakes [[Lake Van|Van]] and [[Lake Sevan|Sevan]], including the large cities of [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]], [[Tigranocerta|Tigranokert]], [[Manzikert]], [[Ani]], and [[Yerevan]]. Maurice's treaty brought a new status-quo to the east territorially. Byzantium was enlarged to an extent never before achieved by the empire. During the new "perpetual peace" millions of solidi were saved by the remission of tribute to the Persians.{{sfn|Norwich|1988|p=273}}

===Balkan war===
{{details|Maurice's Balkan campaigns}}

[[File:Balkans 6th century.svg|thumb|{{center|The Northern Balkans in the 6th century}}]]

The [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] arrived in the [[Carpathian Basin]] in 568. Almost immediately they launched an attack on [[Sirmium]], the keystone to the Byzantine defences on the [[Danube]], but were repulsed. They then sent 10,000 [[Kutrigurs|Kotrigur Huns]] to invade the Byzantine province of [[Dalmatia]].{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=378}} There followed a period of consolidation, during which the Byzantines paid them 80,000 gold solidi a year. In 579, his treasury empty, Tiberius II stopped the payments.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p=405}} 

The Avars retaliated with [[Siege of Sirmium|another siege of Sirmium]].{{sfn|Petersen|2013|pp=378–379}} The city fell in {{c.}} 581. After the capture of Sirmium, the Avars demanded 100,000 solidi a year.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p=406}}
Refused, they used the strategically important city as a base of operations against several poorly defended forts along the Danube and began pillaging the northern and eastern Balkans.{{sfn|Petersen|2013|p=379}} The Slavs began settling the land from the 580s on.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|pp=74–75}}{{sfn|Petersen|2013|pp=378–379}} 

In 584, the Slavs threatened the capital and in 586 the Avars besieged [[Thessalonica]], while the Slavs went as far as the [[Peloponnese]].{{sfn|Norwich|1988|p=274}} After his victory on the eastern frontier in 591, Maurice was free to focus on the [[Balkans]]. He launched several campaigns against the Slavs and Avars. In 592 his troops retook [[Singidunum]] (modern Belgrade) from the Avars. His commander-in-chief [[Priscus (magister militum)|Priscus]] defeated the Slavs, Avars and [[Gepids]] south of the Danube in 593. The same year he crossed the Danube into modern-day [[Wallachia]] to continue his series of victories. In 594, Maurice replaced Priscus with his rather inexperienced brother Peter, who, despite initial failures, scored another victory in Wallachia. Priscus, now in command of another army further upstream, defeated the Avars again in 595. The latter now only dared to attack peripherally, in [[Dalmatia]] two years later. In the same year the Byzantines concluded a peace treaty with the Avar leader [[Bayan I]], which allowed the Byzantines to send expeditions into [[Wallachia]].{{sfn|Pohl|2002|p=154}} 

In 598, Maurice broke the treaty to permit a retaliation campaign inside the Avar homeland. In 599 and 601 the Byzantine forces wreaked havoc amongst the Avars and Gepids. In 602, the Slavs suffered a crushing defeat in Wallachia. The Byzantine troops were now able to hold the Danube line again. Meanwhile, Maurice was making plans for repopulating devastated areas in the Balkans by using Armenian settlers. Maurice also planned to lead further campaigns against the Avar Khaganate, so as to either destroy them or force them into submission.{{sfn|Sebeos|p= 56}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=75}}

===Domestic policy===
[[File:Exarchate of Ravenna 600 AD.png|thumb|{{center|The Exarchate of Italy under Maurice}}]]
[[File:Exarchate of Africa 600 AD.png|thumb|{{center|The Exarchate of Africa under Maurice}}]]
In the west, Maurice organised the threatened Byzantine dominions in [[Italy]] into the [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Exarchate of Italy]]. The Late Roman administrative system provided for a clear distinction between civil and military offices, primarily to lessen the possibility of rebellion by over-powerful provincial governors. In 584, Maurice created the office of exarch, which combined the supreme civil authority of a ''[[praetorian prefect]]'' and the military authority of a ''[[magister militum]]'' and enjoyed considerable autonomy from Constantinople. The Exarchate was successful in slowing the Lombard advance in Italy. In 591, he created a [[Exarchate of Africa|second Exarchate]] in [[Byzantine North Africa]], along similar lines.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=74}}

In 597, an ailing Maurice wrote his last will, in which he described his ideas of governing the empire. His eldest son, [[Theodosius (son of Maurice)|Theodosius]], would rule the eastern provinces from [[Constantinople]]; his second son, Tiberius, would rule the western exarchates from [[Rome]]. Some historians believe he intended for his younger sons to rule from Alexandria, Carthage, and Antioch. His intent was to maintain the unity of the empire; this idea bears a strong resemblance to the [[Tetrarchy]] of Diocletian. However, Maurice's violent death prevented these plans from coming to fruition.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=74}}

In religious matters, Maurice was tolerant towards [[Monophysitism]], although he was a supporter of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. He clashed with [[Pope Gregory I]] over the latter's defence of Rome against the [[Lombards]].<ref>{{Cite CE1913 |last=Fortescuen|first=Adrian |wstitle=Maurice |volume=10}}</ref>{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=76}}

Maurice's efforts to consolidate the empire slowly but steadily succeeded, especially after the peace with Persia. His initial popularity apparently declined during his reign, mostly because of his fiscal policies. In 588 he announced a cut in military wages by a quarter, leading to a serious mutiny by troops on the Persian front. He refused to pay a small ransom in 599 or 600 to free 12,000 Byzantine soldiers taken prisoner by the Avars and the prisoners were killed.{{sfn|Norwich|1988|pp=275–278}}