Editing Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor (section)

==Biography==
===Early life and family===
Matthias was born in the [[Archduchy of Austria|Austrian]] capital of [[Vienna]] as the fourth son of [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor]] and of [[Maria of Spain]]. His brothers were [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf]] (who became Emperor Rudolf II), [[Archduke Ernest of Austria|Ernest]], [[Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria|Maximilian]] (from 1585 Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]]), [[Albert VII, Archduke of Austria|Albert]] (archbishop of Toledo, later governor of the Netherlands), and [[Archduke Wenceslaus of Austria|Wenceslaus]] (Grand Prior of the [[Order of Malta]] in [[Crown of Castile|Castile]]). He also had six sisters. His sister [[Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain|Anna]] was married to King [[Philip II of Spain]] and his sister [[Elisabeth of Austria, Queen of France|Elisabeth]] to King [[Charles IX of France]].<ref name="max">{{Cite web |title=Maximilian II |url=https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016334/images/index.html?id=00016334&groesser=&fip=193.174.98.30&no=&seite=492 |publisher=Neue deutsche Biographie |access-date=1 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Duerloo2012">{{Cite book |last=Duerloo |first=Luc  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7lFeRMDb2QC |title=Dynasty and Piety: Archduke Albert (1598-1621) and Habsburg Political Culture in an Age of Religious Wars |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7546-6904-3}}</ref> Almost nothing is known about his upbringing. One of his teachers was the writer and historian [[Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq]].<ref name="Forster2005">{{Cite book |last=Forster |first=Edward Seymour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AnynLQ_cgjYC |title=The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq |date=1 June 2005 |publisher=LSU Press |isbn=978-0-8071-3071-1}}</ref> Upon Maximilian II's death, the family's estates and property were all inherited by Rudolf, the eldest son. The other sons, including Matthias, were compensated with cash pensions and appointments to church or state positions. Matthias married Archduchess [[Anna of Austria, Empress Matthias|Anna of Austria]], daughter of his uncle Archduke [[Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria|Ferdinand II of Austria]] and became his heir in [[Further Austria]] in 1595. The marriage did not produce surviving children.

===Governor in Netherlands===
[[File:Ritratto di Mattia d'Asburgo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|19th century portrait of Matthias]]
[[File:Iimatyas.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Coronation medal of Matthias as [[Kingdom of Hungary|King of Hungary]]]]
In 1578, Matthias was invited to the [[Seventeen Provinces]] by the [[States General of the Netherlands|States-General]] of the rebellious provinces, which offered him the position of Governor-General. Matthias had come into contact with Gautier van der Gracht, the envoy of the Dutch provinces, at the [[Regensburg]] Reichstag in 1576. [[Philippe III de Croÿ]], Duke of Aarschot, and other representatives of a rather moderate party agreed with Matthias to make him the governor of the Netherlands against the will of his uncle, [[Philip II of Spain]], the hereditary ruler of the provinces and without the knowledge of Emperor Rudolf II. Matthias accepted the appointment, but the position was not recognised by Philip II. He set down the rules for religious peace within most of the [[United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]]. His work is noted in Article 13 of the 1579 [[Union of Utrecht]], which established [[freedom of religion]] as a locally determined issue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Union of Utrecht |url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/dutch/Union_Utrecht_1579.html |publisher=constitution org |access-date=1 March 2020}}</ref> Matthias continued as titular governor for the rebels until their deposing of Philip II and [[Act of Abjuration|declaration of full independence]] in 1581, when he returned home to Austria.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

===Governor of Austria===
He returned to Austria in 1583, where he settled in [[Linz]] with a small household. He made several unsuccessful attempts to get elected as bishop of ([[Prince-Bishopric of Münster|Münster]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Liège]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Speyer|Speyer]]). In 1586, negotiations for the succession of [[King of Poland|Polish]] King [[Stephen Báthory]] were equally unsuccessful. He also applied for the regency in [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]] and [[Further Austria]]. It was only after his brother Ernest was appointed General Governor in the [[Spanish Netherlands|Netherlands]] in 1593, where he ruled from 1594, that Matthias secured governance over Austria.<ref name="bio">{{Cite web |title=Matthias Kaiser |url=https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/gnd119400839.html#ndbcontent |publisher=Deutsche Biographie |access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="bab">{{Cite web |title=Matthias and Rudolf II: the beginning of the 'Bruderzwist |url=https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/matthias-and-rudolf-ii-beginning-bruderzwist |last=Martin Mutschlechner |publisher=Die Welt der Habsburger |access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref>

He was immediately confronted with the vigorous advocacy of their religious rights among the [[Protestant]] estates. The problems were exacerbated by the high taxes and the troops who were raised as a result of the [[Long Turkish War]].<ref name="Lewis2002">{{Cite book |last=Bernard Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0O9jARjPYlYC |title=What Went Wrong?: Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response |date=24 January 2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803295-3}}</ref> In 1595 and 1597 the farmers in [[Lower Austria|Lower]] and [[Upper Austria]] revolted in the hope of negotiating with the emperor. Matthias forced the insurgents into submission with mercenary troops.<ref name="Wilson2009">{{Cite book |last=Peter H. Wilson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XgtpAl8HzjcC |title=The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03634-5}}</ref>

After the uprising had been quelled, Matthias's policies on religion changed. If there had been Protestants at his court, he now went on a strict [[Counter-Reformation]] course. His chancellor had been [[Melchior Khlesl]], bishop and administrator of [[Wiener Neustadt]] from 1599 and a supporter of the Counter-Reformation. Matthias appointed him in 1594 to 1595 and again in 1598 to 1600 as nominal commander in chief in the Turkish War and as his representative to the Hungarian Diet.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TMelchior Cardinal Klesl |url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bklesl.html |publisher=Catholic-Hierarchy |access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Bireley2014">{{Cite book |last=Robert Bireley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q70BQAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 |title=Ferdinand II, Counter-Reformation Emperor, 1578–1637 |date=17 November 2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-16520-1 |pages=7–}}</ref>

===Power struggle among Habsburg brothers===
[[File:Lucas van Valckenborch - Portrait as Archduke in harness in full figure, with a general's staff.jpg|thumb|Matthias portrait as Archduke in armour and general's staff, by [[Lucas van Valckenborch]], 1579 ]]
With great concern, the Habsburgs observed the increasing [[depression (mood)|psychological decline]] of the ageing emperor. After Ernest's death in 1595, Matthias became the oldest [[archduke]]. From 1599 onward, Matthias in vain urged the childless emperor to arrange his succession, as Matthias was rejected. The crisis carried on in 1604 during the [[Bocskai uprising|uprising]] of [[Stephen Bocskai]] in Hungary. Matthias initially avoided an argument with the emperor, but Bishop Klesl urged him to take command in the [[Brothers' Quarrel]] with Rudolf. In November 1600 at [[Schottwien]], Archdukes Matthias, Maximilian and [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand]] signed an agreement of concerted opposition against the emperor. In 1606, they declared Rudolf insane (document dated 25 April), appointed Matthias as the head of the family and began to oust Rudolf. It was Matthias, not the emperor, who had brokered the [[Peace of Zsitvatorok]] with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and in 1606 had [[Treaty of Vienna (1606)|ended the conflict in Hungary]] by granting freedom of religion in Hungary and guaranteed the right of [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]] to elect its own independent princes in the future.<ref name=bab/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthias and Rudolf II: the beginning of the Bruderzwist |url=https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/matthias-and-rudolf-ii-beginning-bruderzwist |last=Martin Mutschlechner |publisher=Die Welt der Habsburger |access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref>

As unrest resurfaced in Hungary and spread into parts of [[Margraviate of Moravia|Moravia]] and Austria, Matthias attempted to use the opposition in the power struggle against the emperor. He joined the rebellious [[Diet of Hungary]] and the Lower and Upper Austrian estates in [[Bratislava|Pressburg]] in 1608 and in Moravia shortly later. In April 1608, Matthias marched on [[Prague]] and besieged the city. Although he could not fully win over the Bohemian estates, he forced Rudolf to negotiate and to sign a peace treaty in June 1608, which unsurprisingly resulted in the redistribution of power. Rudolf kept Bohemia, Silesia and [[March of Lusatia|Lusatia]], and Matthias received Hungary, Austria and Moravia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthias an ambitious archduke as political adventurer |url=https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/matthias-ambitious-archduke-political-adventurer |last=Martin Mutschlechner |publisher=Die Welt der Habsburger |access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref>

However, the takeover of power did not proceed according to customary protocol. Matthias, as the new sovereign, had not guaranteed the privileges of the estates before they officially paid homage to him. He tried to reverse the order, which led to the so-called ''Homage Dispute''. As most of the estates were Protestant in Austria and Moravia, their nobles then formed the powerful [[Horner Confederation]] (Horner Bund) and paid homage only after a guarantee of their religious rights. The Horner Confederation continued to exist until the beginning of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Horn: town of insurgent Estates |url=https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/horn-town-insurgent-estates |last=Martin Mutschlechner |publisher=Die Welt der Habsburger |access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Coxe1847">{{Cite book |last=William Coxe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYcAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR7 |title=History of the House of Austria, from the Foundation of the Monarchy by Rhodolph of Hapsburgh to the Death of Leopold II: 1218 to 1792: In Three Volumes |publisher=G. Bohn |year=1847 |pages=7–}}</ref>

===Sovereign rule===
[[File:Matthias Krönung - Krönung und Salbung.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Imperial coronation of Matthias in Frankfurt, 1612]] 
[[File:Kaiser Matthias Schoener Brunnen Alt und Neu Wien 670.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Emperor Matthias at the ''Beautiful Spring'' (Schöner Brunnen)]]
Matthias was crowned King of Bohemia on 23 May 1611 and was, after Rudolf's death on 20 January 1612, [[1612 imperial election|elected]] [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. On 4 December 1611, he married his cousin Archduchess [[Anna of Tyrol|Anna of Austria]], but the union failed to produce children. Matthias allegedly fathered an illegitimate son, Matthias of Austria, by an unknown mother.<ref name=bio/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Eigentliche Contrafactur aller underschiedlichen Acten wie Ihre Kon. M. in Hungarn den 23 May Anno 1611 Zum Konig in Bohmen ist gekront worden. |url=http://digital.ub.uni-duesseldorf.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-88731 |last=Franz Hogenberg |publisher=Heinrich Heine Universität Düsseldorf |access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref>

The court and the administration were gradually moved from Prague to Vienna after 1612. The new emperor was less interested in art than Rudolf II had been, and most court artists soon turned their backs on his court. Matthias maintained, however, a close relationship with the painter [[Lucas van Valckenborch]]. For the private crown of his brother Rudolf II, he had a sceptre and an orb made. The emperor's wife founded the [[Capuchin Church, Vienna|Capuchin Church]] and the [[Imperial Crypt]] in Vienna as the future burial site of the Habsburg family. Matthias had allegedly found a spring in the area of today's [[Schönbrunn Palace]]. It is said that it became the eponymous name of the area and the palace from his remark: "Look, what a beautiful spring" (beautiful: ''schön'', spring: ''Brunn[en]'').

After Matthias's imperial accession, his kingship was dominated by Klesl, who hoped to bring about a compromise between [[Catholic]] and Protestant states within the [[Holy Roman Empire]] to strengthen the empire. Matthias had already been forced to grant religious concessions to Protestants in Austria and Moravia, as well as in Hungary, when he had allied with them against Rudolf. Matthias imprisoned Georg [[House of Keglević|Keglević]], the [[Commander-in-chief]], [[General]], Vice-[[Ban (title)|Ban]] of Croatia, [[Kingdom of Slavonia|Slavonia]] and Dalmatia and since 1602 [[baron]] in Transylvania, but soon freed again. The [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] was a fully-autonomous area of Hungary but under the nominal [[suzerainty]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], where it was the time of the [[Sultanate of Women]].<ref name="Wilson2009" />

Matthias's conciliatory policies were opposed by the more intransigent Catholic Habsburgs, particularly Matthias's brother Archduke [[Maximilian III of Austria|Maximilian]], who hoped to secure the succession for the inflexible Catholic Archduke Ferdinand, [[Oñate treaty|who later became]] Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]]. The Protestant Bohemians were concerned [[Letter of Majesty|about their religious freedom]] and so fiercely opposed all Catholic officials who were appointed by Matthias, particularly Archduke Ferdinand, who was elected King of Bohemia in June 1617. The dispute came to a head in the [[Defenestrations of Prague|Bohemian Protestant revolt]], which provoked Matthias to imprison Klesl and to revise his policies. However, he was old and ailing and was unable to prevent Maximilian's faction from taking over. He died of natural causes at 62 on 20 March 1619. Ferdinand, who had already been crowned King of Bohemia (1617) and of Hungary (1618), succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Defenestration of Prague |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Defenestration-of-Prague-1618 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Habsburg Rule of the Czech Lands |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/cz-history-habsburg.htm |publisher=Global Security |access-date=1 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="Maag2016">{{Cite book |last=Karin Maag |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsSlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 |title=The Reformation in Eastern and Central Europe |date=5 December 2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-88307-8 |pages=72–}}</ref>