Editing Marshall, Texas (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Marshall, Texas}}

===Republic of Texas and Civil War (1841–1860)===
[[Image:Wyalucing.jpg|left|thumb|The Wyalucing plantation was the childhood home of [[Lucy Holcombe Pickens]], the only woman whose image was used on [[Confederate States dollar|Confederate currency]]. It housed the office of the Trans-Mississippi Postal Department of the Confederacy. In 1880, [[freedmen]] bought the plantation and used it for the campus of [[Bishop College]], founded for black students. The main house was used as the president's house.]]

The city was founded in 1841 as the seat of Harrison County after failed attempts to establish a county seat on the [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine River]]. It was incorporated in 1843.<ref name="Lale 7" /> The [[Republic of Texas]] decided to choose the land donated for the seat by [[Peter Whetstone]] and [[Isaac Van Zandt]] after Whetstone had proven that the hilly location had a good water source.

The city quickly became a major city in the state because of its position as a gateway to Texas; it was on the route of several major [[stagecoach]] lines. Later, one of the first railroad lines constructed into Texas ran through it.

The founding of several colleges, including a number of seminaries, teaching colleges, and incipient universities, earned Marshall the nickname "the [[Athens]] of Texas", in reference to the ancient Greek city-state. The city's growing importance was confirmed when Marshall was linked by a [[telegraph]] line to [[New Orleans]]; it was the first city in Texas to have a telegraph service.<ref name="Campbell">{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Randolph B. |title=Marshall, Texas |work=The Handbook of Texas Online |url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hem01 |access-date=2006-05-25 |date=2001-07-13}}</ref>

By 1860, Marshall was the fourth-largest city in Texas and the seat of its richest county. Developing the land for cotton [[plantations in the American South|plantations]], county planters held more [[slavery|slave]]s here than in any other county in the state. Many planters and other whites were strongly against the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] because of their investment in slavery.

When Governor [[Sam Houston]] refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederate States of America, Marshall's [[Edward Clark (governor)|Edward Clark]] was sworn in as governor.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WOOSTER|first=RALPH A.|date=2010-06-12|title=CLARK, EDWARD|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fcl04|access-date=2020-06-18|website=tshaonline.org|language=en}}</ref> [[Pendleton Murrah]], Texas's third [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] governor, was also from Marshall.

The city became a major Confederate supply depot and manufacturer of [[gunpowder]] for the [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]].<ref name="Lale 12">Lale, p. 12.</ref> It hosted three conferences of [[Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War|Trans-Mississippi]] and [[Indian Territory]] leaders.

The exiled [[Confederate government of Missouri]] established Marshall as its temporary capital.<ref name="Campbell" /> The city took the nickname of the "City of Seven Flags".<ref name=":4" /> This was a nod to the [[flag of Missouri]], in addition to the [[six flags of Texas|six flags]] of the varying nations and republics that have flown over the city.

Also during the Civil War, after the fall of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi#History|Vicksburg]], Marshall became the seat of Confederate civil authority and headquarters of the Trans-Mississippi Postal Department. The city may have been the intended target of a failed Union advance that was rebuffed at [[Mansfield, Louisiana]].

Toward the end of the American Civil War, the Confederate government had $9.0 million in treasury notes and $3.0 million in [[postage stamp]]s shipped to Marshall.<ref name="Davis 413">{{cite book |last=Davis |first=William C. |year=2002 |title=Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America |edition=1st |publisher=Free Press |isbn=0-684-86585-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lookawayhistoryo00will/page/413 413] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lookawayhistoryo00will }}</ref> They may have intended Marshall as the destination of a government preparing to flee from advancing armies.

===Reconstruction and the railroad era (1865–1895)===
[[Image:A former slave displaying a horn used to call slaves.jpg|thumb|upright|A former slave displays a horn in 1939 that was formerly used by planters to call slaves on the outskirts of Marshall. Many [[freedmen]] moved to Marshall from rural areas during [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], creating their own community and seeking the chance to live away from the supervision of whites. After Union troops departed at the end of Reconstruction, Democrats formed the White Citizens Party, establishing an [[insurgent]] [[militia]] dedicated to [[white supremacy]].]]

Marshall was occupied by Union forces on June 17, 1865.<ref name="Campbell 268">Campbell (2003), p. 286.</ref> During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], the city was home to an office of the [[Freedmen's Bureau]] and was the base for federal troops in the region.<ref name="Campbell 272">Campbell (2003), p. 272.</ref> In 1873 the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] founded [[Wiley College]] to educate freedmen. African Americans came to the city seeking opportunities and protection until 1878.

Although freedmen comprised the majority of voters in the county and supported the Republican Party, establishing a bi-racial government, in the post-Reconstruction era, the White Citizens Party, led by former Confederate General [[Walter P. Lane]] and his brother George, took control of the city and county governments by fraud and intimidation at elections.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guzman|first=Will|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbVCCQAAQBAJ&q=white+citizens+party+marshall&pg=PA19|title=Civil Rights in the Texas Borderlands: Dr. Lawrence A. Nixon and Black Activism|date=2015-01-30|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09688-4|language=en}}</ref> Their militia ran Unionists, [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and many African Americans out of town. The Lanes ultimately declared Marshall and Harrison County "redeemed" from Union and African-American control.<ref name="Berglund">{{cite book |last=Berglund |first=Ernest |year=1948 |title=History of Marshall |edition=1st}}</ref>

Despite this, the African-American community continued to progress. The historically black [[Bishop College]] was founded in 1881, and Wiley College was certified by the [[Freedman's Aid Society]] in 1882.

Marshall's "Railroad Era" began in the early 1870s. Harrison County citizens voted to offer a $300,000 bond subsidy,<ref name="Lale 12"/> and the City of Marshall offered to donate land north of the downtown to the [[Texas and Pacific Railway]] if the company would establish a center in Marshall. T&P President [[Jay Gould]] accepted the business incentive, locating the T&P's workshops and general offices for Texas in Marshall. The city immediately had a population explosion from workers attracted to the potential for new jobs there.<ref name="Campbell"/>

By 1880, the city was one of the [[Southern United States|South]]'s largest [[cotton]] markets, with crops and other products shipped by the railroad. The city's prosperity attracted new businesses: [[Joe Weisman & Company|J. Weisman and Co.]] opened here as the first [[department store]] in Texas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weissbach|first=Lee Shai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDViIlVm0s8C&pg=PA101|title=Jewish Life in Small-Town America: A History|date=2008-10-01|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-12765-2|language=en}}</ref> When one light bulb was installed in the Texas and Pacific Depot, Marshall became the first city in Texas to have electricity. During this period of wealth, many of the city's now historic homes were constructed. The city's most prominent industry, pottery manufacturing, began with the establishment of [[Marshall Pottery]] in 1895.

Despite the prosperity of the railroad era, some city residents struggled with poverty. Blacks were severely discriminated against under what was known as [[Jim Crow]] laws and customs. At the turn of the 20th century, the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed segregation laws and [[Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchised most blacks and Hispanics]], as did all the states of the former Confederacy in this period. These minorities were essentially excluded from the political system for more than 60 years. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries and suffered injustices from [[all-white juries]]. In addition, from 1877 to 1950, Harrison County had 14 lynchings, most in the early 20th century, and more than any other county in Texas.

In the rural areas of Harrison County, more interaction occurred between whites and African-Americans than in the city, and whites and blacks were often neighbors. However, Jim Crow rules were strongly imposed on African-Americans.

=== Early and mid-20th century ===
[[Image:Whetstone Square 1939.jpg|thumb|left|The community has developed in and around Whetstone Square, shown here in 1939. White guests stayed at the Capitol Hotel, right, and the taller Hotel Marshall directly behind it. In the 1960s, the Harrison County Courthouse, center, was the site of the first [[sit-in]]s in Texas by the civil rights movement.]]

In 1909, a field of [[natural gas]] was discovered near [[Caddo Lake]]; it was exploited  to supply city needs.<ref name="Lale 21">Lale, p. 21.</ref> Under the leadership of [[John L. Lancaster]], the Texas and Pacific Railway enjoyed its height of success during the first half of the 20th century. Marshall's ceramics industry expanded to the point that the city was called by boosters the "Pottery Capital of the World".<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

In 1930, what was then the largest oil field in the world was discovered at nearby [[Kilgore, Texas|Kilgore]]. The first student at [[Marshall High School (Texas)|Marshall High School]] to have a car was [[Lady Bird Johnson]], a kind of progress that excited many students.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, children of both races were forced into accepting the law of [[racial segregation]] in the state. Marshall resident [[George Dawson (author)|George Dawson]] became a writer late in life when he learned to read and write at age 98. He described his childhood under segregation in his memoir ''Life Is So Good''(2013), written with Richard Glaubman. He said that in some instances, he and other Blacks resisted the demands of Jim Crow. For instance, he rejected one employer who expected him to eat with her dogs.

As blacks were being excluded from politics and tensions rose, more [[lynching]]s of black men took place, a form of extrajudicial punishment and social control. Beginning in the late 19th century, a total of 14 Black men were lynched in the county, the third-highest total in the state.<ref>[https://eji.org/sites/default/files/lynching-in-america-third-edition-summary.pdf ''Lynching in America, Third Edition: Supplement by County''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023063004/https://eji.org/sites/default/files/lynching-in-america-third-edition-summary.pdf |date=2017-10-23 }}, p. 9, Equal Justice Initiative, Mobile, AL, 2017</ref> Suspects were often brought to Marshall for the lynchings, or taken from the county jail before trial and hanged in the courthouse square for maximum public effect of terrorizing the black population. Between October 1903 and August 1917, at least 12 black men were lynched in Marshall.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120721221218/http://www.autopsis.org/foot/lynchnames.html The Lynching Calendar: Names A-L<!-- Bot generated title -->].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://venus.soci.niu.edu/~archives/ABOLISH/july98/0024.html |title=THE PAN-AFRICAN RESEARCH AND DOCUMENTATION CENTER -Archived copy |date= July 1, 1998 |publisher= Wayne State University |access-date=2008-04-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070529192747/http://venus.soci.niu.edu/~archives/ABOLISH/july98/0024.html |archive-date=2007-05-29 }}</ref><ref>''[[The Birmingham News]]'', [[Birmingham, Alabama]]; 1913-02-27.</ref><ref>''[[Boston Guardian]]'', [[Boston, Massachusetts]]; 1914-04-30.</ref> Not all instances of lynching were documented, so there may have been others.

In the early and mid-20th century, Marshall's [[historically black colleges and universities|traditionally black colleges]], Wiley and Bishop, were thriving intellectual and cultural centers. The writer [[Melvin B. Tolson]], who was part of the [[Harlem Renaissance]] in New York City, taught at Wiley College.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wiley College's Great Debaters {{!}} Humanities Texas|url=https://www.humanitiestexas.org/news/articles/wiley-colleges-great-debaters|access-date=2020-06-18|website=www.humanitiestexas.org}}</ref> Painter Samuel Countee, a Texas-born student of Bishop College in the mid-1930s, exhibited at the Harmon Exhibitions in 1935–1937 and won a scholarship to study at the [[Boston Museum of Fine Arts]]. Countee had a successful career as a teacher and artist in the New York City area, where he lived for the rest of his life.

Inspired by the teachings of professors such as Tolson, students and former students of the colleges mobilized to challenge and dismantle [[Jim Crow]] laws and institutions in the 1950s and 1960s. Fred Lewis, as the secretary of the Harrison County [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP), challenged the [[White Citizens Party]] in Harrison County, which had the oldest chapter in Texas, and the laws the party supported. This suit overturned Jim Crow in the county with the ''[[Perry v. Cyphers]]'' ruling. [[Heman Sweatt]], a Wiley graduate, tried to enroll in the [[University of Texas at Austin]] [[Law School]], but was denied entry because of his race. He sued and the [[United States Supreme Court]] ordered the desegregation of postgraduate studies in public universities in Texas in its ruling in ''[[Sweatt v. Painter]]'' (1950). [[James Farmer]], another Wiley graduate, became an organizer of the [[Freedom Rides]] and a founder of the [[Congress of Racial Equality]] (CORE), which was active throughout the South.

===Late 20th{{snd}}early 21st centuries===
[[File:Elks Building, Marshall, Texas.jpg|thumb|upright|Elks Building, Marshall, Texas (postcard, 1909)]]

The [[Civil Rights Movement]] reached into the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. In the 1960s, students organized the first [[sit-in]]s in Texas,<ref name="Campbell 428">Campbell (2003), p. 428.</ref> in the [[rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]] of the county courthouse on Whetstone Square. They protested continuing segregation of public schools. This governmental practice had been declared unconstitutional in 1954 by the US Supreme Court in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''. In 1970, all Marshall [[state school|public schools]] were finally integrated.

Also in that year, Carolyn Abney became the first woman to be elected to the Marshall City Commission. In April 1975, nearly a decade after passage of the federal [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], local businessman Sam Birmingham became the first African American to be elected to the city commission. In the 1980s, he was elected as the city's first African-American [[mayor]]. Birmingham retired in 1989 for health concerns and was succeeded by his wife, Jean Birmingham.

Marshall's railroad industry declined during the restructuring of the industry; most trains were converted to [[diesel fuel]], and many lines merged. Construction of the [[Interstate Highway System]] after [[World War II]] and expansion of trucking, plus the increase in airline traffic, also led to railway declines. The T&P shops closed in the 1960s, and T&P passenger service ceased in 1970. The Texas oil bust of the 1980s devastated the local economy. The city's population declined by about 1,000 between 1980 and 1990.

During the mid-20th century, the city lost many of its historic landmarks to redevelopment or neglect. For a time people preferred "modern" structures. Other buildings were [[Demolition|demolished]] because tax laws favored new construction.

By 1990, Marshall's opera house, the Missouri Capitol, the Moses Montefiore Synagogue, the original Viaduct, the Capitol Hotel, and the campus of Bishop College (including the Wyalucing plantation house) had been demolished.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Marshall – Moses Montefiore Congregation|url=https://txjhs.org/marshall-moses-montefiore-congregation/|access-date=2020-06-18|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Richardson|first=Robin Y.|title=New museum exhibit, booklet tells story of Marshall's Jewish history|url=https://www.marshallnewsmessenger.com/news/counties/new-museum-exhibit-booklet-tells-story-of-marshalls-jewish-history/article_82b2a498-b51e-53dc-80ea-6814b243655b.html|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Marshall News Messenger|date=April 9, 2017 |language=en}}</ref> In the 1970s, the city began to study [[historic preservation]] efforts of nearby [[Jefferson, Texas|Jefferson]]. Since then it has emphasized preservation of historic assets.

Due to newly completed construction projects, the city was one of 10 designated in 1976 as an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] by the [[National Civic League]]. In 1978, [[Taipei]] mayor [[Lee Teng-hui]], and Marshall mayor William Q. Burns, signed legislation recognizing Marshall as a [[sister city]] to the much larger Taipei. During this period, [[Bill Moyers]] won an [[Emmy award|Emmy]] for his documentary, ''[[Marshall, Texas: Marshall, Texas]],'' chronicling the history of race relations in the city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bill Moyers|url=https://www.emmys.com/bios/bill-moyers|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Television Academy|language=en}}</ref>

In terms of the city's economy, the 1960s through 1980s were a period of decline, largely because of the oil industry and manufacturing changes. Population declined after jobs left the area. [[Longview, Texas|Longview]] surpassed Marshall in population and economy.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the city began to concentrate on diversifying its economy. It has emphasized heritage and other tourism. The city founded two new festivals, the [[red imported fire ant|Fire Ant]] Festival, and the "Wonderland of Lights", which joined the longstanding Stagecoach Days.<ref name=":1" /> The Fire Ant Festival gained national attention through being featured on television in programs such as ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]].''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-09|title=36th Annual Fire Ant Festival this Saturday|url=https://www.theeasttexasweekend.com/36th-annual-fireant-festival-this-saturday/|access-date=2020-06-18|website=The East Texas Weekend|language=en-US}}</ref>[[Image:Downtown Marshall, TX IMG 2336.JPG|220x220px|right|thumb|Downtown Marshall to the north of the former Harrison County Courthouse, 2009]]

The "Wonderland of Lights" became the most popular and one of the largest light festivals in the United States. By 2000, the "Wonderland of Lights" had become such a part of the cityscape that the lighted dome of the Old Courthouse was the most recognizable symbol of the city.  2011 marked the 25th anniversary of the "Wonderland of Lights" festival.

During the 2000s, the downtown area experienced moderate economic growth, which supported restoration of significant buildings. By 2005, the Joe Weisman & Company building, the T&P Depot, the former Hotel Marshall (now known as "The Marshall"), and the former Harrison County Courthouse were either restored or under restoration.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hotel Marshall Undergoes Renovation, Marshall, Texas.|url=http://www.texasescapes.com/Preservation/Hotel-Marshall-Undergoes-Renovation.htm|access-date=2020-06-18|website=texasescapes.com}}</ref>

Restaurants, boutiques, and loft apartments were developed in downtown, adding to the variety of its daily life and the number of pedestrians on the streets. Some projects adapted historic structures for reuse. Many historic homes outside of downtown continue to deteriorate. Some structures in moderate condition were approved for demolition for replacement by prefabricated or tin structures. Whetstone Square has become quite busy again, with few empty buildings around it. Lack of funding and manpower has slowed movement on demolition and salvage of historic homes.

The [[Sam B. Hall, Jr.]] Federal Courthouse has been the venue for several cases challenging state practices under provisions of the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]. For instance, the [[Democratic Party of the United States|Democratic Party]] challenged the [[2003 Texas redistricting|2003 redistricting]] by the state legislature, arguing that it diluted minority rights. Combined with two other cases, these issues were heard by the United States Supreme Court in ''[[League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry]]'' (2006). It upheld the state's actions, with the exception of [[Texas's 23rd congressional district]]; redistricting was required that affected neighboring districts, as well. This had little effect on the new Republican majority of the Texas Congressional delegation after the 2004 elections.<ref name="nytimes2006">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/28/washington/28cnd-scotus.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|work=The New York Times|title=Justices Back Most G.O.P. Changes to Texas Districts|date=June 28, 2006}}</ref>

An unusually high number of [[patent]] [[lawsuits]] were being filed in the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas]], which includes Marshall, [[Tyler, Texas|Tyler]], and [[Texarkana, Texas|Texarkana]]. [[TiVo]] sued [[Dish Network|EchoStar]] over [[digital video recorder]] patent rights. Marshall has a reputation for [[plaintiff]]-friendly [[jury|juries]] for the 5% of patent lawsuits that reach [[Jury trial|trial]]. This has resulted in 78% plaintiff wins. The number of patent suits filed in 2002 was 32, and the number for 2006 was estimated at 234.<ref name="NYTimes"/>

The patent suits filed here were second-highest in number, after the [[United States District Court for the Central District of California]] in Los Angeles in 2009.<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news |last=Creswell |first=Julie |title=So Small a Town, So Many Patent Suits |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/24/business/24ward.html?ex=1159329600&en=2beff530451a51dc&ei=5070 |date=2006-09-24 |access-date=2007-10-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424190026/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/24/business/24ward.html?ex=1159329600&en=2beff530451a51dc&ei=5070 |archive-date=2009-04-24 }}</ref> The trend continued through 2011 in the Eastern District of Texas, which includes Marshall, with the number of patent lawsuits more than doubling from 2010.<ref name="DallasMorningNews">{{cite news |last=Curriden |first=Mark |title=Patent lawsuits skyrocket in Texas |newspaper=[[Dallas Morning News]] |url=http://www.dallasnews.com/business/headlines/20130212-patent-lawsuits-skyrocket-in-texas.ece |date=2013-02-12 |access-date=2013-10-24}}</ref>

Marshall was profiled on ''[[This American Life]]'', as its juries' support of plaintiffs in patent suits has generated controversy.<ref name="ThisAmericanLife">{{cite web |title=441: When Patents Attack! |url=http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/441/when-patents-attack |date=2012-07-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104043043/http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/441/when-patents-attack |archive-date=2012-01-04 }}</ref>

On January 18, 2010, Dr. John Tennison, a [[San Antonio]] physician and musicologist, publicized his research that found that [[boogie-woogie]] music was first developed in the Marshall area in the early 1870s. It originated among African Americans working with the T&P Railroad and the logging industry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Boogie Woogie: Born In The Backwoods Of America|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/01/17/132963070/boogie-woogie-born-in-the-backwoods-of-america|access-date=2020-06-18|website=NPR.org|language=en}}</ref> On May 13, 2010, the Marshall City Commission unanimously passed an ordinance declaring Marshall to be "the Birthplace of Boogie Woogie".<ref>{{Cite web|title=About {{!}} Marshall, Texas: The Birthplace of Boogie Woogie|url=http://boogiewoogiemarshall.com/about/|access-date=2020-06-18|language=en-US}}</ref> On September 2, 2018, the Harrison County Historic Commission unveiled a state Texas Historic Marker that declares Marshall as the birthplace of Boogie Woogie.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Richardson|first=Robin Y.|title=Marker celebrates Marshall as birthplace of boogie-woogie music|url=https://www.news-journal.com/news/county/harrison/marker-celebrates-marshall-as-birthplace-of-boogie-woogie-music/article_fbdfbe1e-6507-5954-aea8-3a25ca01c57c.html|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Longview News-Journal|date=September 10, 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Richardson|first=Robin Y.|title=Marker unveiling ceremony celebrates Marshall as birthplace of 'Boogie Woogie'|url=https://www.marshallnewsmessenger.com/news/marker-unveiling-ceremony-celebrates-marshall-as-birthplace-of-boogie-woogie/article_3f6d4e56-afa6-11e8-8fd3-17ed682ad769.html|access-date=2020-06-18|website=Marshall News Messenger|date=September 4, 2018 |language=en}}</ref>