Editing Mariculture (section)

==Types==
===Onshore===
[[File:Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i.jpg|thumb|An onshore [[algaculture|microalgae]] cultivation facility in Hawaii<ref name="10.5670/oceanog.2022.213">{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=Charles |last2=Scott-Buechler |first2=Celina |last3=Hausner |first3=Arjun |last4=Johnson |first4=Zackary |last5=Lei |first5=Xin Gen |last6=Huntley |first6=Mark |title=Transforming the Future of Marine Aquaculture: A Circular Economy Approach |journal=Oceanography |date=2022 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2022.213 |issn=1042-8275|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

Although it sounds like a paradox, mariculture is practiced onshore variously in [[fish tank|tank]]s, [[fish pond|pond]]s or [[raceway (aquaculture)|raceways]] which are supplied with [[seawater]].  The distinguishing traits of onshore mariculture are the use of seawater rather than fresh, and that food and nutrients are provided by the water column, not added artificially, a great savings in cost and preservation of the species' natural diet. Examples of onshore mariculture include the farming of [[algaculture|algae]] (including [[plankton]] and [[seaweed]]), [[Marine life|marine]] [[finfish]], and [[shellfish]] (like [[shrimp]] and [[oysters]]), in manmade saltwater ponds.

===Inshore===
[[Image:MH Lochailort.jpg|thumb|Fish cages containing [[salmon]] in [[Loch Ailort]], Scotland, an [[littoral zone|inshore water]]]]

Inshore mariculture is farming marine species such as algae, fish, and shellfish in waters affected by the tide, which include both [[littoral zone|littoral water]]s and their [[estuary|estuarine environments]], such as bays, brackish rivers, and naturally fed and flushing saltwater ponds.

Popular cultivation techniques for inshore mariculture include creating or utilizing artificial reefs,<ref name="abc.net.au-2014-08-15">{{cite web
 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-15/nrn-abalone-wild-farm/5673010
 | title =First wild abalone farm in Australia built on artificial reef 
 | last =Fitzgerald
 | first =Bridget
 | date =28 August 2014
 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation Rural
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =23 April 2016
 }}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2016-04-23">{{cite web
 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-23/world-first-abalone-sea-ranch-creating-opportunity/7345448
 | title =Abalone grown in world-first sea ranch in WA 'as good as wild catch'
 | last =Murphy
 | first =Sean
 | date =23 April 2016
 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News.
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =23 April 2016}}</ref> pens, nets, and long-line arrays of floating cages moored to the bottom.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.brookstrapmill.com/product/6-bag-oyster-ranch-squared-bags/ | title=6-bag Oyster Ranch, Squared Bags }}</ref>

As a result of simultaneous global development and evolution over time, the term "ranch" being associated typically with inshore mariculture techniques has proved problematical.  It is applied without any standardized basis to everything from marine species being raised in floating pens, nested within artificial reefs, tended in cages (by the hundreds and even thousands) in long-lined groups, and even [[operant conditioning]] migratory species to return to the waters where they were born for harvesting (also known as "enhanced stocking").{{efn|As is done in Japan where fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond.<ref>Arnason, Ragnar (2001) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y1805e/y1805e07.htm#bm07.1 Ocean Ranching in Japan] In: ''The Economics of Ocean Ranching: Experiences, Outlook and Theory'', FAO, Rome. {{ISBN|92-5-104631-X}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Masuda R |author2=Tsukamoto K |year=1998|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1998/00000062/00000002/art00005 |title=Stock Enhancement in Japan: Review and perspective|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=62|issue=2|pages=337–358}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Lindell, Scott |author2=Miner S|author3= Goudey C|author4= Kite-Powell H |author5=Page S |year=2012|url=https://www.fra.affrc.go.jp/bulletin/bull/bull35/35-12.pdf|title=Acoustic Conditioning and Ranching of Black Sea Bass ''Centropristis striata'' in Massachusetts USA|journal=Bull. Fish. Res. Agen.|volume=35|pages=103–110}}</ref>}}

===Open ocean===
Raising marine organisms under controlled offshore in "open ocean" in exposed, high-energy marine environments beyond {{clarification needed span|text=significant coastal influence|reason=This ambiguous wording (which stands as WP:WEASEL WOODS at present) needs both immediate clarification and reliable citation.|date=July 2024}}, is a relatively new{{When|date=September 2022}} approach to mariculture.  Open ocean aquaculture (OOA) uses cages, nets, or long-line arrays that are moored or towed.{{how|reason=How are they towed, by what?  Continuously?  Explanation and reliable citation, please.|date=July 2024}}  Open ocean mariculture has the potential to be combined with offshore energy installation systems, such as [[offshore wind power|wind-farms]], to enable a more effective use of ocean space.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Aquaculture perspective of multi-use sites in the open ocean : the untapped potential for marine resources in the Anthropocene|others=Buck, Bela Hieronymus, Langan, Richard, 1950-|date=6 April 2017|isbn=978-3-319-51159-7|location=Cham, Switzerland|oclc=982656470}}</ref>

Research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under development in Panama, Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and Norway. {{As of|2004}}, two commercial open ocean facilities were operating in U.S. waters, raising [[threadfin]] near [[Hawaii]] and [[cobia]] near [[Puerto Rico]]. An operation targeting [[bigeye tuna]] recently received final approval. All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction. The largest deep water open ocean farm in the world is raising cobia 12&nbsp;km off the northern coast of Panama in highly exposed sites.<ref name=crs>{{
cite web
 |url=http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/04dec/RL32694.pdf 
 |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] 
 |first1=Rachel 
 |last1=Borgatti 
 |first2=Eugene H. 
 |last2=Buck 
 |title=Open Ocean Aquaculture 
 |date=December 13, 2004 
 |access-date=April 10, 2010 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823144656/http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/04dec/RL32694.pdf 
 |archive-date=August 23, 2009 
}}</ref><ref>{{
cite web
|first=Audrey |last=McAvoy
|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory?id=8905220
|title=Hawaii regulators approve first US tuna farm
|work=[[The Associated Press]]
|date=October 24, 2009
|access-date=April 9, 2010
}}</ref>

There has been considerable discussion as to how mariculture of seaweeds can be conducted in the open ocean as a means to regenerate decimated fish populations by providing both habitat and the basis of a [[trophic pyramid]] for marine life.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Flannery, Tim F. (Tim Fridtjof), 1956-|title=Sunlight and seaweed : an argument for how to feed, power and clean up the world|date=31 July 2017|isbn=978-1-925498-68-4|location=Melbourne|oclc=987462317}}</ref> It has been proposed that natural seaweed ecosystems can be replicated in the open ocean by creating the conditions for their growth through artificial upwelling and through submerged tubing that provide substrate. Proponents and [[permaculture]] experts recognise that such approaches correspond to the core principles of permaculture and thereby constitute [[marine permaculture]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Drawdown : the most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming|others=Hawken, Paul|year=2017|isbn=978-0-14-313044-4|location=New York, New York|oclc=957139166}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people=Gameau, Damon (Director) |date=May 23, 2019 |title=2040 |medium=Motion picture |location=Australia |publisher=Good Things Productions}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Von Herzen|first=Brian|date=June 2019|title=Reverse Climate Change with Marine Permaculture Strategies for Ocean Regeneration|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ch65gqD1g4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/9Ch65gqD1g4| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|website=Youtube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Powers|first=Matt|title=Marine Permaculture with Brian Von Herzen Episode 113 A Regenerative Future|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJLHJJNBsVI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ZJLHJJNBsVI| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|website=Youtube|date=10 July 2019 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=December 2019|title=Marine Permaculture with Dr Brian von Herzen & Morag Gamble|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8RojQZbsB8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/y8RojQZbsB8| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|website=Youtube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The concept envisions using artificial upwelling and floating, submerged platforms as substrate to replicate natural seaweed ecosystems that provide habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Climate Foundation: What is Marine Permaculture? |url=https://www.climatefoundation.org/what-is-marine-permaculture.html|access-date=2020-07-05|website=Climate Foundation|language=en}}</ref> Following the principles of permaculture, seaweeds and fish from marine permaculture arrays can be sustainably harvested with the potential of also sequestering atmospheric carbon, should seaweeds be sunk below a depth of one kilometer. As of 2020, a number of successful trials have taken place in Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Tasmania.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Climate Foundation: Marine Permaculture|url=https://www.climatefoundation.org/marine-permaculture.html|access-date=2020-07-05|website=Climate Foundation|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Assessing the Potential for Restoration and Permaculture of Tasmania's Giant Kelp Forests - Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies|url=https://www.imas.utas.edu.au/research/ecology-and-biodiversity/projects/projects/assessing-the-potential-for-restoration-and-permaculture-of-tasmanias-giant-kelp-forests|access-date=2020-07-05|website=Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies - University of Tasmania, Australia|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-11|title=Seaweed researchers plant kelp tolerant of warmer waters|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2019-11-11/seaweed-scientists-replanting-giant-kelp-forests/11680194|access-date=2020-07-05|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref> The idea has received substantial public attention, notably featuring as a key solution covered by [[Damon Gameau]]’s documentary [[2040 (film)|2040]] and in the book [[Drawdown (book)|Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming]] edited by [[Paul Hawken]].