Editing Marcus Junius Brutus (section)

== Early life ==
[[File:Capitoline Brutus Musei Capitolini MC1183.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Capitoline Brutus]]'', supposedly depicting Brutus' ancestor [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], who expelled the kings from Rome.{{Sfn|Tempest|2017|loc=Plate 3}}]]
Marcus Junius Brutus belonged to the illustrious [[plebeian]] [[Junia gens|gens Junia]]. Its semi-legendary founder was [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], who played a pivotal role during the [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|overthrow]] of [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquinius Superbus]], the last Roman king, and was afterward one of the two first consuls of the new Roman Republic in 509 BC, taking the opportunity also to have the people swear an oath never to have another king in Rome.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=17–18}}

Brutus was born late in 85&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Broughton|1986|p=112}}{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=262–63}} His [[Marcus Junius Brutus (tribune 83 BC)|homonymous father]] was [[tribune of the plebs]] in 83&nbsp;BC,{{sfn|Broughton|1952|p=63}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Treggiari|first=Susan|author-link=Susan Treggiari |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198829348.001.0001/oso-9780198829348-chapter-4|title=Servilia and her Family|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-19-186792-7|language=en-US|chapter=Adolescence and Marriage to Brutus (c. 88–78)|pages=70–87|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198829348.003.0004}}</ref> but he was targeted by [[Sulla]] during his [[Sulla's proscription|proscription]].{{sfn|Hinard|1985|pp=361–362}} He later served as legate<ref>{{harvnb|Broughton|1952|p=91}}. See also {{Cite book|last=Valerius Maximus|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53231884|title=Memorable deeds and sayings : one thousand tales from ancient Rome|date=2004|translator-last=Walker |translator-first=Henry J |isbn=0-87220-675-0 |location=Indianapolis |oclc=53231884 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |page=205 |quote=Pompey killed Marcus Junius Brutus, a rebel legate in northern Italy, in 77&nbsp;BC.}}</ref> in the rebellion of [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] and was killed by [[Pompey]] in 77.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=24}} He had married [[Servilia (mother of Brutus)|Servilia]] of the [[Servilii Caepiones]] who was the half-sister of [[Cato the Younger]],{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=25}} and later [[Julius Caesar]]'s mistress.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Flower|first=Harriet |date=7 March 2016|title=Servilia|url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-5854|access-date=21 May 2021|website=Oxford Classical Dictionary|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5854|isbn=978-0199381135 }}</ref> Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of Caesar being Brutus' real father,{{sfn|Plut. ''Brut.''|loc=5.2}} despite Caesar being only fifteen years old when Brutus was born. Ancient historians were sceptical of this possibility, and the theory is largely rejected by modern scholars as chronologically improbable.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=102}}, noting the "almost universally accepted" treatment rejecting Caesar's parentage at {{cite wikisource |last=Fluß |first=Max |wslink=RE:Servilius 101 |title=Servilius 101 |encyclopedia=Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft |year=1923 |volume=II A,2 |publisher=Butcher |location=Stuttgart |wslanguage=de |at=cols. 1817–21 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Syme|first=Ronald|date=1960|title=Bastards in the Roman Aristocracy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/985248|journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|volume=104|issue=3 |issn=0003-049X |page=326 |jstor=985248|quote=Chronology is against Caesar's paternity.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Syme|first=Ronald|date=1980|title=No Son for Caesar?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435732|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=29|issue=4|page=426|jstor=4435732|issn=0018-2311 |quote=Caesar is excluded by plain fact}}.</ref>

As a result of his father's proscription, Brutus could not start a political career. Around 59, this restriction was lifted by Brutus' posthumous adoption by one of his relatives, [[Quintus Servilius Caepio (adoptive father of Brutus)|Quintus Servilius Caepio]];{{sfn|Hinard|1985|pp=185–186, 361–362}} he was therefore known officially as Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, though he hardly used his legal name.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=25}}, citing Cic. ''Att.'', 2.24.3.</ref> In 59, when Caesar was consul, Brutus also was implicated by Lucius Vettius in the [[Vettius affair]] as a member of a conspiracy plotting to assassinate Pompey in the forum.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=36}} Vettius was detained for admitting possession of a weapon within the city, and quickly changed this story the next day, dropping Brutus' name from his accusations.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=37}}, citing Cicero's allegation of a "nocturnal intervention" altering Vettius' testimony at Cic. ''Att.'', 2.24.3.</ref>

Brutus' first appearance in public life was as an assistant to Cato, when the latter was appointed by the [[Roman senate|senate]] acting at the bequest of [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]], as governor of [[Cyprus]] in 58.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=40}} According to Plutarch, Brutus was instrumental in assisting the administration of the province (specifically by converting treasure of the former king of the island into usable money); his role in administering the province, however, has "almost certainly been exaggerated".<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=40}}, citing {{harvnb|Plut. ''Brut.''|loc=3.1–4}}.</ref>

=== ''Triumvir monetalis'' ===
[[File:Q. Servilius Caepio (M. Junius) Brutus, denarius, 54 BC, RRC 433-2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Denarius minted by Brutus, 54&nbsp;BC, with the portraits of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] (obverse) and [[Gaius Servilius Ahala]] (reverse).{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=455}}{{Sfn|Tempest|2017|loc=Plate 5}}]]
[[File:Q. Servilius Caepio (M. Junius) Brutus, denarius, 54 BC, RRC 433-1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Denarius of Brutus, 54&nbsp;BC, depicting the personification of [[Libertas]] and Lucius Junius Brutus with [[lictor]]s.{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=455}}{{Sfn|Tempest|2017|loc=Plate 4}}]]

In 54&nbsp;BC, Brutus served as ''[[triumvir monetalis]]'', one of the three men appointed annually for producing coins, even though only another colleague is known: [[Quintus Pompeius Rufus (grandson of Sulla)|Quintus Pompeius Rufus]]. Moneyers in Brutus' day frequently issued coins commemorating their ancestors; Pompeius Rufus thus put the portraits of his two grandfathers (the dictator [[Sulla]] and [[Quintus Pompeius Rufus (consul 88 BC)|Pompeius Rufus]]) on his [[Denarius|denarii]].<ref>{{harvnb|Crawford|1974|pp=456, 734}}. Quintus Pompeius Rufus was a supporter of Pompey.</ref> Brutus, like his colleague, designed a denarius with the portraits of his paternal ancestor [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and maternal ancestor [[Gaius Servilius Ahala]], both of whom were widely recognised in the late Republic as defenders of liberty (for, respectively, expelling the kings and killing [[Spurius Maelius]]).{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=41}} He also made a second type featuring [[Libertas]], the goddess of liberty, and Lucius Brutus.{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=455}} These coins show Brutus' admiration for the tyrannicides of the early republic, already mentioned by [[Cicero]] as early as 59&nbsp;BC. In addition, Brutus' denarii and their message against tyranny participated in the propaganda against [[Pompey]] and his ambitions to rule alone or become dictator.<ref>{{harvnb|Crawford|1974|pp=455, 456, 734}}, also mentioning other moneyers minting coins for and against Pompey in the 50s&nbsp;BC.</ref>

=== Cilicia ===
Brutus married [[Appius Claudius Pulcher (consul 54 BC)|Appius Claudius Pulcher]]'s daughter Claudia, likely in 54 during Pulcher's consulship. He was elected as [[quaestor]] (and automatically enrolled in the senate) in 53.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=43}}, citing Cic. ''Fam.'', 3.4.2 (relation to Appius) and {{harvnb|Broughton|1952|p=229}} (dating of quaestorship). See, however, {{harvnb|Broughton|1986|p=112}} for alternative dating of quaestorship of 54.</ref> Brutus then travelled with his father-in-law to Cilicia, likely as proquaestor,{{sfn|Broughton|1986|p=112}} during the latter's [[proconsul]]ship in the next year.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=42–43}} While in Cilicia, he spent some time as a money-lender, which was discovered two years later when Cicero was appointed proconsul between 51 and 50&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=45}} Brutus asked Cicero to help collect two debts which Brutus had made: one to [[Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia|Ariobarzanes]],{{efn|Possibly [[Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia|Ariobarzanes II]]. Cicero's time as governor overlaps with the death of Ariobarzanes II and the accession of Ariobarzanes III.}} the king of Cappadocia, and one to the town of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]].{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=46}} Brutus' loan to Ariobarzanes was bundled with a loan also made by Pompey and both received some repayment on the debt.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=46}}

The loan to Salamis was more complex: officially, the loan was made by two of Brutus' friends, who requested repayment at 48 per cent per annum, which was far in excess of Cicero's previously imposed interest cap of 12 per cent. The loan dated back to 56, shortly after Brutus returned to Rome from Cyprus.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=46}} Salamis had sent a delegation asking to borrow money, but under the ''lex Gabinia'' it was illegal for Romans to lend to provincials in the capital, but Brutus was able to find "friends" to loan this money on his behalf, which was approved under his influence in the senate. Because the ''lex Gabinia'' also invalidated such contracts, Brutus also had his contract – officially his friends' contract – confirmed by the senate.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=47}} One of Brutus' friends in whose name the debt was officially issued, Marcus Scaptius, was in Cilicia during Cicero's proconsulship using force to coerce repayment, which Cicero stopped; Cicero, not seeking to endanger his friendship with Brutus, but also disappointed and angry at Brutus' mischaracterisation of the loan and the exorbitant interest rate attached,{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=48–49}} was persuaded by Scaptius to defer a decision on the loan to the next governor.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=47}}

=== Opposition to Pompey ===
In 52, in the aftermath of the death of his uncle-in-law, [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] (brother of his wife's father), he wrote a pamphlet, ''De Dictatura Pompei'' (On the Dictatorship of Pompey), opposing demands for Pompey to be made dictator, writing "it is better to rule no one than to be another man's slave, for one can live honourably without power but to live as a slave is impossible".{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=50}} He was in this episode more radical than [[Cato the Younger]], who supported Pompey's elevation as sole consul for 52, saying "any government at all is better than no government".{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=51}} Soon after Pompey was made sole consul, Pompey passed the ''lex Pompeia de vi'', which targeted [[Titus Annius Milo]], for which Cicero would write a speech ''[[pro Milone]]''.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=51}} Brutus also wrote for Milo, writing (a now lost) ''pro T Annio Milone'',{{efn|The speech Brutus wrote for Milo is also called the {{lang|la|exercitatio Bruti pro Milone}}. {{harvnb|Balbo|2013|p=320}}.}} in which he connected Milo's killing of Clodius explicitly to the welfare of the state and possibly also criticising what he saw as Pompey's abuses of power.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=52}} This speech or pamphlet was very well received and positively viewed by later teachers of rhetoric.{{sfn|Balbo|2013|p=319}}

In the late 50s, Brutus was elected as a ''pontifex'', one of the public priests in charge of supervising the calendar and maintaining Rome's peaceful relationship with the gods.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=53}}, noting also that {{harvnb|Broughton|1952|p=254}} dates elevation to 51&nbsp;BC.</ref> It is likely that Caesar supported his election.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=53}} Caesar had previously invited Brutus, after his quaestorship, to join him as a legate in Gaul, but Brutus declined, instead going with Appius Pulcher to Cilicia, possibly out of loyalty thereto.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=43–44}} During the 50s, Brutus also was involved in some major trials, working alongside famous advocates like [[Cicero]] and [[Quintus Hortensius]]. In 50, he – with Pompey and Hortensius – played a significant role in defending Brutus' father-in-law Appius Claudius from charges of treason and electoral malpractice.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|pp=53–54}}, citing Cic. ''Att.'', 3.11.1–3 and 3.12.1.</ref>

In the political crisis running up to [[Caesar's Civil War]] in 49, Brutus' views are mostly unknown. While he did oppose Pompey until 52, Brutus may have simply taken a tactical silence.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=59}} Cicero's letters also indicate that Brutus may have been courted by Caesar – who is said to have spoken about avenging the death of Brutus' father – in the run-up to the civil war.<ref>{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=60}}, citing Cic. ''Att.'', 8.14.2.</ref>