Editing Malacca Sultanate (section)

==History==

===Early foundation===
The founding of Malacca is generally taken to be {{circa|1400|lk=no}}.<ref name="Borschberg"/> The region was dominated by the [[Srivijaya]] empire centered on [[Palembang]] in Sumatra until it was weakened by the [[Chola Empire]] in the 11th century. By the end of the 13th century, the Javanese [[Singhasari]] followed by the [[Majapahit]] had become dominant.

According to the ''[[Malay Annals]]'', a prince from [[Palembang]] named [[Sang Nila Utama|Seri Teri Buana]] who claimed to be a descendant of [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Rajendra Chola I]], stayed on [[Bintan Island]] for several years before he set sail and landed on [[Temasek]] in 1299.<ref>{{harvnb|Abshire|2011|p=18&19}}</ref> The [[Orang Laut]], known for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called [[Kingdom of Singapura|Singapura]]. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the [[Pax Mongolica]] era and rose from a small trading outpost into a centre of international trade with strong ties to the [[Yuan dynasty]].

In an effort to revive the fortune of [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] in Sumatra, in the 1370s, a Malay ruler of [[Palembang]] sent an envoy to the court of [[Hongwu Emperor|the first emperor]] of the newly established [[Ming dynasty]]. He invited China to resume the tributary system, just like Srivijaya did centuries earlier. Learning of this diplomatic maneuver, King [[Hayam Wuruk]] of Majapahit sent an envoy to Nanking and convinced the emperor that Malayu was their vassal, and not an independent country.<ref name="Britannica-Majapahit">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Indonesia, The Majapahit Era | encyclopedia = Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/The-Majapahit-era}}</ref> Subsequently, in 1377—a few years after the death of [[Gajah Mada]], Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang,<ref name="ricklefs">{{cite book|last = Ricklefs | first = Merle Calvin | year = 1993 | title =  A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.) | publisher = Stanford University Press / Macmillans | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC| isbn = 9780804721950}}</ref>{{rp |19}} which caused the diaspora of the Palembang princes and nobles.

By the second half of the 14th century, the Kingdom of Singapura grew wealthy. However, its success alarmed two regional powers at that time, [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] to the north and [[Majapahit]] to the south. As a result, the kingdom's fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was [[Sack of Singapore|finally sacked]] by either Ayutthaya or Majapahit in 1398.<ref>{{harvnb|Tsang|Perera|2011|p=120}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sabrizain|p=[http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/parames1.htm Palembang Prince of Singapore Renegade?]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Abshire|2011|p=19&24}}</ref> The last king of Singapura then fled to the west coast of the [[Malay Peninsula]].

Malay and Portuguese sources give different accounts of the fall of Singapura and its last king. In Portuguese sources, he is referred to as [[Parameswara of Malacca|Parameswara]] and originated in Palembang but usurped the throne of Singapura, but in Malay sources he is Iskandar Shah, a descendant Seri Teri Buana who became the fifth king of Singapura.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800|author= John N. Miksic|publisher=NUS Press |year=2013|isbn= 978-9971695743|pages=155–163}}</ref> Parameswara fled north to [[Muar (town)|Muar]], Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam River (modern-day [[Malacca River]]). The village belonged to the [[Orang Laut]] who were left alone by Majapahit's forces that not only sacked Singapura but also Langkasuka and Pasai. As a result, the village became a safe haven and in the 1370s it began to receive a growing number of refugees fleeing Majapahit's attacks. By the time Parameswara reached Malacca in the early 1400s, the place was already cosmopolitan feel with Buddhists from the north, Hindus from Palembang and Muslims from Pasai.<ref name="RJWilkinson">{{cite book|last = Wilkinson| first = R. J. | year = 1912 | title = The Malacca Sultanate | publisher = The Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society | url = http://www.mbras.org.my/file/Malacca%20Sultanate%2067-71.pdf }}</ref>

Legend has it that Parameswara saw a [[mouse deer]] outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this bode well, stating, "this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable; it is best that we establish a kingdom here". Tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the mouse deer is part of modern Malacca's [[coat of arms]]. The name "Malacca" itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree ({{langx|ms|Pokok Melaka}}) scientifically termed as ''[[Phyllanthus emblica]]''.<ref>[http://www.perpustam.gov.my/tyt_portal/tyt_portal/english/history/history/origin.html Origin of Malacca]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>  Another theory to the origin of Malacca's name is that it originated from Arab merchants, during the reign of [[Muhammad Shah of Malacca|Sultan Muhammad Shah]] ({{reign|1424|1444}}), who called the kingdom "Malakat" ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for "congregation of merchants") because it was home to many trading communities.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=112}}</ref>

===Growth===
[[File:80LangMap002.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Map of 15th century Malacca and its contemporaries.]]
[[File:Disembarkation point of Admiral Zheng He in 1405.jpg|thumb|right|A memorial rock for the disembarkation point of Admiral [[Zheng He]] in 1405.]]
Following the establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara began to develop the city and laid the foundation of a trade port. The [[Orang Laut]], were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel pirates, and to direct traders to Malacca.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=113}}</ref> Within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread across the eastern part of the world. In 1405, the [[Yongle Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]] ({{reigned|1402|1424}}) sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/7?hl=melaka 311]}}</ref> Yin Qing's visit paved the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, Admiral [[Zheng He]] made [[Ming treasure voyages|his first of six visits]] to Malacca.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/533?hl=Zheng+he 366]}}</ref> [[Zheng He]] called at Malacca and brought Parameswara with him on his return to China, a recognition of his position as ruler of Malacca. In exchange for regular tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Malacca protection from the constant threat of Siamese attack. Due to Chinese involvement, Malacca had grown as a key alternative to other important and established ports.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sen |first1=Tansen |title=The Impact of Zheng He's Expeditions on Indian Ocean Interactions |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |date=2016 |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=615–621|doi=10.1017/S0041977X16001038}}</ref>  Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca. Other foreign traders, notably the Arabs, Indians, and Persians came to establish their trading bases and settle in Malacca, raising its population to 2,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia|2000|pp=[http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=3&ttl_id=59 First Ruler of Melaka : Parameswara 1394–1414]}}</ref> In 1411, Parameswara headed a royal party of 540 people and left for China with Admiral Zheng He to visit the Ming court.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1781?hl=melaka 774]}}</ref>  In 1414, the ''[[Ming Shilu]]'' mentions that the son of the first ruler of Malacca visited the Ming court to inform Yongle that his father had died.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/2115?hl=melaka 881]}}</ref>

There is uncertainty in the chronology of the early rulers of Malacca due to discrepancies contained in Malay, Chinese and Portuguese sources, such as the names, number of rulers and reign details:<ref name="wang">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DtaBBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |author=Wang, G. |date=2005|chapter=The first three rulers of Malacca|editor= L., Suryadinata |title= Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia|publisher= International Zheng He Society / Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |pages= 26&ndash;41 |isbn=9812303294 }}
*{{cite journal |title=The first three rulers of Malacca |journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume= 41|number= 1 (213) |date=July 1968|pages= 11–22 (12 |jstor=41491931 |last1=Gungwu |first1=Wang }}</ref>

{| class=wikitable
|+ Early rulers of Malacca Sultanate according to different sources
|- 
! scope="col" style="width: 185px;" | ''[[Malay Annals]]''<br /><small>Raffles MS</small>{{efn|Another version of the Malay Annals gave 6 rulers instead of the 5 here}}
! scope="col" style="width: 185px;" | ''Bustan al-Salatin''<br /><small>1638</small>
! scope="col" style="width: 185px;" | ''[[Suma Oriental]]''<br /><small>1512&ndash;1515</small>
! scope="col" style="width: 185px;" | ''[[Ming Shilu]]''<br /><small>1425&ndash;1455</small>
|-
| Sultan Iskandar Shah||Sri Rama Adikerma <br/>(Raja Iskandar Shah)|| Parameswara<br/><small>(''Paramicura'')</small>||Parameswara<br><small>(拜里迷蘇剌)</small>
|-
|Raja Kechil Besar<br/>(Sultan Megat)||Raja Besar Muda <br/>(Sultan Ahmad)|| Iskandar Shah<br/><small>(''Chaquem Daraxa'')</small>|| [[Megat Iskandar Shah]]<br><small>(母幹撒于的兒沙)</small>
|-
|Raja Tengah <br/>([[Muhammad Shah of Malacca|Sultan Mohammed Shah]])|| Raja Tengah || ||Sri Maharaja<br><small>(西里馬哈剌者)</small>
|-
|Raja Ibrahim <br/>([[Abu Syahid Shah of Malacca|Sultan Abu-Shahid]])||Raja Kechil Besar <br/>(Sultan Mohammad Shah) || || Sri Parameswara Dewa Shah<br/><small>(息力八密息瓦兒丢八沙)</small>
|-
|Raja Kassim<br/>([[Muzaffar Shah of Malacca|Sultan Muzaffar Shah]])||Raja Kasim<br/>(Sultan Muzaffar Shah)  || Sultan Muzaffar Shah<br/><small>(''Sultan Modafaixa'')</small>||[[Muzaffar Shah of Malacca|Sultan Muzaffar Shah]]<br><small>(速魯檀無答佛哪沙)</small>
|}
{{notelist}}
Due to the differences, there are disagreements about the early rulers of Malacca. It is, however, generally accepted that the Parameswara of Portuguese and Chinese sources and Iskandar Shah of the ''Malay Annals'' were the same person, but a number of authors also accept the similarly named [[Megat Iskandar Shah of Malacca|Megat Iskandar Shah]] as Parameswara's son. During the reign of Megat Iskandar Shah ({{r.|1414|1424}}), the kingdom continued to prosper, the Sultan's control spread from [[Kuala Linggi (state constituency)|Kuala Linggi]] to Kuala Kesang, roughly corresponding to the modern state of [[Malacca]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Andaya |first1=Barbara Watson |title=A History of Malaysia |last2=Andaya |first2=Leonard Y. |publisher=Macmillan Education |year=1982 |edition=1st |pages=50–51 |language=en}}</ref> The period saw the diversification of economic sources of the kingdom with the discovery of two [[tin]] mining areas in the northern part of the city, [[Metroxylon sagu|sago palm]]s in the orchards and [[nipah palm]]s lining in the estuaries and beaches. To improve the defence mechanism of the city from potential aggressors, Megat Iskandar Shah ordered the construction of a wall surrounding the city with four guarded entrances. A fenced fortress was also built in the town centre where the state's treasury and supply were stored.<ref>{{harvnb|Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia|2000|p=[http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=4&ttl_id=59 Second Ruler of Melaka : Sultan Megat Iskandar Syah (1414–1424)]}}</ref> The growth of Malacca coincided with the rising power of [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] to the north. The growing ambitions of Ayutthaya against its neighbours and the Malay Peninsula had alarmed the ruler of Malacca. In a preemptive measure, the king headed a royal visit to China in 1418 to raise his concerns about the threat. Yongle responded in October 1419 by sending his envoy to warn the Siamese ruler.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2000|p=175}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chase|2003|p=51}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hack|Rettig|2006|p=21}}</ref> Relationship between China and Malacca were further strengthened by several envoys to China, led by the Malaccan princes, in 1420, 1421 and 1423.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/search/?q=melaka Search – Melaka]}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 250
| image1            = The Port City of Malacca painted by unknown artist.jpg
| caption1          = Reconstruction of the port of Malacca after its foundation, from Malacca Maritime Museum
| image2            = Melaka during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah by Maembong Ayoh.jpg
| caption2          = Malacca Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah (1477–1488) by Maembong Ayoh
| header            = Modern depictions of Malacca Sultanate
}}
Between 1424 and 1433, two more royal visits to China were made during the reign of the third ruler, [[Muhammad Shah of Malacca|Raja Tengah]] ({{r.|1424|1444|lk=no}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/2966?hl=melaka 1170]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1651?hl=melaka 1620]}}</ref> named Sri Maharaja in some sources.<ref name="wang" /> During Raja Tengah's rule, it was said that an [[ulama]] called Saiyid Abdul Aziz came to Malacca to spread the teaching of Islam. The king together with his royal family, senior officials and the subjects of Malacca listened to his teachings.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=117}}</ref> Shortly after, Raja Tengah adopted the Muslim name, Muhammad Shah and the title ''[[Sultan]]'' on the advice of the ulama.<ref>{{harvnb|Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia|2000|p=[http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=424&ttl_id=59 Third Ruler of Melaka : Seri Maharaja (Raja Tengah ) or Sultan Muhammad Syah]}}</ref> He began to Islamise his administration—customs, royal protocols, bureaucracy and commerce were made to conform to the principles of Islam. As Malacca became increasingly important as an international trading centre, the equitable regulation of trade was the key to continued prosperity—and the ''[[Undang-Undang Laut Melaka]]'' (Maritime Laws of Malacca), promulgated during the reign of Sultan Muhammad Shah, was an important facet of this. So too was the appointment of four ''[[Shahbandar]]s'' for the different communities of the port. This accommodated foreign traders, who were also assigned their own enclaves in the city.<ref name="Ahmad Sarji 2011 115">{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=115}}</ref> In the 1430s, China had reversed its policy of maritime expansion. However, by then Malacca was strong enough militarily to defend itself. In spite of these developments, China maintained a continuous show of friendship, suggesting that it placed Malacca in high regard. In fact, although it was China's practice to consider most foreign countries as vassal states – including Italy and Portugal – its relations with Malacca were characterised by mutual respect and friendship, such as that between two sovereign countries.<ref name="Ahmad Sarji 2011 118">{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=118}}</ref>

Muhammad Shah died in 1444 after reigning for twenty years and left behind two sons; Raja Kasim, the son of Tun Wati who in turn a daughter of a wealthy Indian merchant, and Raja Ibrahim, the son of the Princess of Rokan. He was succeeded by his younger son, Raja Ibrahim, who reigned as Sultan [[Abu Syahid Shah of Malacca|Abu Syahid Shah]] ({{r.|1444|1446|lk=no}}). Abu Syahid was a weak ruler and his administration was largely controlled by Raja Rokan, a cousin of his mother who stayed in the court of Malacca during his reign. The situation prompted court officials to plan the assassination of Raja Rokan and to install Raja Kasim on the throne. Both the Sultan and Raja Rokan were eventually killed in the attack in 1446.<ref>{{harvnb|Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia|2000|p=[http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=425&ttl_id=59 Fourth Ruler of Melaka : Sultan Abu Syahid (1445–1446)]}}</ref> Raja Kasim was then appointed as the fifth ruler of Malacca and reign as [[Muzaffar Shah of Malacca|Sultan Muzaffar Shah]] ({{r.|1446|1459}}). The looming threat from the Siamese kingdom of [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] became a reality when it launched a land invasion of Malacca in 1446. [[Tun Perak]], the chief of [[Klang, Malaysia|Klang]] brought his men to help Malacca in the battle against the Siamese, in which Malacca emerged victorious. His strong leadership qualities gained the attention of the Sultan, whose desire to see Malacca prosper made him appoint Tun Perak as the ''[[Bendahara]]''. In 1456, during the reign of King [[Trailokanat]], Ayutthaya launched another attack, this time by sea. When news about the attack reached Malacca, naval forces were immediately rallied and a defensive line was made near [[Batu Pahat]]. The forces were commanded by Tun Perak and assisted by Tun Hamzah, a warrior known as Datuk Bongkok. The two sides clashed in a fierce naval battle in which the more advanced Malaccan navy succeeded in driving off the Siamese, pursuing them to Singapura and forcing them to return home. Malacca's victory in this battle gave it new confidence to devise strategies to extend its influence throughout the region. The defeat of Ayutthaya brought political stability to Malacca and enhanced its reputation in South East Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia|2000|p=[http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=426&ttl_id=59 Fifth Ruler of Melaka : Sultan Muzaffar Syah (1446–1456)]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sabrizain|p=[http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/melaka1.htm Siamese Nemesis]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad|1979|pp=94–96}}</ref>

=== Golden era ===
[[File:Malaccapalace.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Malacca Sultanate Palace Museum|replica of Malacca Sultanate's palace]] which was built from information and data obtained from the ''[[Malay Annals]]''. This historical document had references to the construction and the architecture of palaces during the era of [[Mansur Shah of Malacca|Sultan Mansur Shah]], who ruled from 1458 to 1477.]]

Malacca reached its height of glory between the mid to late 15th century up to before the Portuguese occupation. The reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah saw the territorial incorporation of the region between [[Dindings]] and Johor, and was the first Malaccan ruler to impose authority over both the western and eastern ends of the [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref name=":0" /> The kingdom controlled a section of global trade on a vital choke point; the narrow strait that today bears its name, the [[Strait of Malacca]]. Its port city had become the centre of regional and international trade, attracting regional traders as well as traders from major states such as the Chinese [[Ming dynasty]], the [[Ryukyu Kingdom]] as well as Persians, Gujarats and Arabs.<ref name="Ahmad Sarji 2011 114">{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=114}}</ref>

The reign of [[Mansur Shah of Malacca|Mansur Shah]] ({{reign|1459|1477|lk=no}}) witnessed a major expansion of the sultanate. Among the earliest territory ceded to the sultanate was [[Old Pahang Kingdom|Pahang]], with its capital, [[Inderapura]]—a massive unexplored land with a large river and abundant source of gold which was ruled by Maharaja [[Dewa Sura]], a relative of the King of [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Ligor]]. The Sultan dispatched a fleet of two hundred ships, led by Tun Perak and 19 Malaccan [[hulubalang]]s. On reaching Pahang, a battle broke out in which the Pahangites were decisively defeated and its entire royal court were captured. The Malaccan fleet returned home with Dewa Sura and his daughter, Wanang Seri who were handed over to Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sultan appointed Tun Hamzah to rule Pahang.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad|1979|pp=96–100}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leyden|1821|pp=135–141}}</ref> A policy of rapprochement with Ligor was later initiated by Mansur Shah to ensure steady supplies of rice.<ref name="Ahmad Sarji 2011 118"/>

On his royal visit to [[Majapahit]], Mansur Shah was also accompanied by these warriors. At that time, Majapahit was already declining and found itself unable to overcome the rising power of the Malaccan Sultanate. After a display of Malaccan military prowess in his court, the king of Majapahit, afraid of losing more territories, agreed to marry off his daughter, Raden Galuh Cendera Kirana to Sultan Mansur Shah and hand over control of Indragiri, Jambi, Tungkal and Siantan to Malacca.<ref name="PNM-Mansur">{{harvnb|Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia|2000|p=[http://sejarahmalaysia.pnm.my/portalBI/detail.php?section=sm01&spesifik_id=427&ttl_id=59 The Sixth Ruler of Melaka : Sultan Mansur Syah (1456–1477)]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Reid|Marr|1991|p=178}}</ref> Mansur Shah was also able to vassalise Siak in Sumatra. Later in his reign, Pahang, Kampar and Indragiri rebelled but were eventually subdued.<ref name=":0" />

The friendly relations between China and Malacca escalated during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sultan sent an envoy headed by Tun Perpatih Putih to China, carrying a diplomatic letter from the Sultan to the Emperor. According to the ''Malay Annals'', Tun Perpatih succeeded in impressing the Emperor of China with the fame and grandeur of Sultan Mansur Shah that the Emperor decreed that his daughter, [[Hang Li Po]], should marry the Sultan. The ''Malay Annals'' further asserts that a senior minister of state and five hundred ladies in waiting accompanied the "princess" to Malacca. The Sultan built a palace for his new consort on a hill known ever afterwards as [[Bukit Cina]] ("Chinese Hill"). As trade flourished and Malacca became more prosperous, Mansur Shah ordered the construction of a large and beautiful palace at the foot of Malacca Hill. The royal palace reflected the wealth, prosperity and power of Malacca and embodied the excellence and distinct characteristics of [[Rumah Melayu|Malay architecture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad Sarji|2011|p=110}}</ref>

The brief conflict between Malacca and [[Đại Việt]] during the reign of [[Lê Thánh Tông]] ({{reigned|1460|1497|lk=no}}), began shortly after the 1471 [[1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa|Vietnamese invasion]] of [[Champa]], then already a Muslim kingdom. The Chinese government, without knowing about the event, sent a censor Ch'en Chun to Champa in 1474 to install the Champa King, but he discovered Vietnamese soldiers had taken over Champa and were blocking his entry. He proceeded to Malacca instead and its ruler sent back tribute to China.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1981 2363]}}</ref> In 1469, Malaccan envoys on their return from China was attacked by the Vietnamese who castrated the young and enslaved them. In view of the Lê dynasty's position as a protectorate to China, Malacca abstained from any act of retaliation. Instead, Malacca sent envoys to China in 1481 to report on the Vietnamese aggression and their invasion plan against Malacca, as well as to confront the Vietnamese envoys who happened to be present in the Ming court. However, the Chinese informed that since the incident was years old, they could do nothing about it, and the Chinese [[Chenghua Emperor|Emperor Chenghua]] sent a letter to the Vietnamese ruler reproaching him for the incident. The Emperor also granted permission for Malacca to retaliate with violent force should the Vietnamese attack, an event that never happened again.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2005|p=[http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/2657 2427]}}</ref> An unsubstantiated Chinese account reported that Lê Thánh Tông led 90,000 men on an invasion to [[Lan Sang]] but this force was chased away by a Malaccan army that beheaded 30,000 [[Đại Việt]] soldiers.<ref name="TranReid2006">{{cite book|author1=Nhung Tuyet Tran|author2=Anthony Reid|title=Viet Nam: Borderless Histories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzh1fQEEFPAC&pg=PA104|date=2006|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-21773-0|page=104}}</ref>

[[File:Hang Tuah, Muzium Negara - cropped.jpg|thumb|160px|left|A bronze [[relief]] of [[Hang Tuah]], a legendary Malay hero. Exhibited at the [[National Museum (Malaysia)|National Museum]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]].]]
The expansionist policy of Mansur Shah was maintained throughout his reign when he later added [[Kampar, Perak|Kampar]] and [[Siak Regency|Siak]] to his realm.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmad|1979|pp=148–151}}</ref> He also turned a number of states in the archipelago into his imperial dependencies. The ruler of such states would come to Malacca after their coronation to obtain the blessing of the Sultan of Malacca. Rulers who had been overthrown also came to Malacca requesting the Sultan's aid in reclaiming their throne. One such examples was Sultan Zainal Abidin of [[Pasai]] who was toppled by his relatives. He fled to Malacca and pleaded with Sultan Mansur Shah to reinstall him as a ruler. Malacca armed forces were immediately sent to Pasai and defeated the usurpers. Although Pasai never came under the control of Malacca afterwards, the event greatly demonstrated the importance of Malacca and the mutual support it had established among leaders and states in the region.<ref name="PNM-Mansur"/> Sultan Mansur Shah died in 1477 whilst Malacca was at the peak of its splendour.

The prosperous era of Malacca continued under the rule of his son, Sultan [[Alauddin Riayat Shah of Malacca|Alauddin Riayat Shah]] ({{r.|1477|1488|lk=no}}) and more foreign rulers within the region began paying homage to the Sultan of Malacca. Among them were a ruler from the [[Moluccas]] who were defeated by his enemies, a ruler of Rokan and a ruler named Tuan Telanai from [[Terengganu]]. Alauddin Riayat Shah placed a great importance in maintaining peace and order during his reign. He extended the conquests of his father to include the [[Riau Islands|Riau-Lingga islands]]. He was succeeded by his son, Sultan [[Mahmud Shah of Malacca|Mahmud Shah]] ({{r.|1488|1511|lk=no}}) who was a teenage boy upon his accession. Hence Malacca was administered by Bendahara Tun Perak with the help of other senior officials. The town of Malacca continued to prosper with an influx of foreign traders after the appointment of [[Tun Mutahir of Malacca|Tun Mutahir]] as Bendahara. This was due to his efficient and wise administration and his ability to attract more foreign traders to Malacca. By about 1500, Malacca was at the height of its power and glory, this can be exemplified by Mahmud Shah's rejection of the overlordship of both Ayutthaya and the declining [[Majapahit]],<ref name=":0" /> with the former resulting in an [[Siamese invasion of Malacca (1500)|abortive invasion]]. Its city of Malacca was the chief centre of trade in Indian cloth, Chinese porcelain and silk and Malay spices, and the headquarters of Muslim activity in the Malay Archipelago. Malacca was still looking to expand its territory as late as 1506, when it conquered [[Kelantan]]. While the legendary [[Legend of Puteri Gunung Ledang|Princess of Gunung Ledang]] was said to have lived during the reign of Mahmud Shah and was once wooed by the sultan himself.<ref name="Ahmad Sarji 2011 119"/>

===Portuguese invasion===
{{main|Capture of Malacca (1511)}}By the 15th century, Europe had developed an appetite for [[spices]]. At that time, the spice trade was virtually monopolised by [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] merchants via a convoluted trade route through the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and India, which in turn linked to its source in the [[Maluku Islands]] via Malacca. Upon becoming king in 1481, [[John II of Portugal]] decided to break this chain and control the lucrative spice trade directly from its source. This led to the expansion of Portuguese sea exploration, pioneered by [[Vasco da Gama]], into the east coasts of India that resulted in the establishment of Portuguese stronghold in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Years later, during the reign of [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]], a [[fidalgo]] named [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]] was assigned to analyse trade potential in [[Madagascar]] and Malacca. He arrived in Malacca on 1 August 1509 carrying with him a letter from the King. His mission was to establish trade with Malacca. The [[Tamil Muslim]]s who were now powerful in the Malaccan court and friendly with [[Tun Mutahir of Malacca|Tun Mutahir]], the Bendahara, were hostile towards the Christian Portuguese. The [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] merchants who were also Muslims and had known the Portuguese in India, preached a holy war against "the infidels". Because of the dissension between Mahmud Shah and Tun Mutahir, a plot was hatched to kill de Sequeira, imprison his men and capture the Portuguese fleet anchored off the Malacca River. The plot leaked out and de Sequeira managed to escape from Malacca in his ship, leaving behind several of his men who were taken captive.<ref>{{harvnb|Dhoraisingam|2006|p=8}}</ref>

In April 1511 [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], who was the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese expedition]] leader together with his [[Naval fleet|armada]], arrived in Malacca to sever its Islamic and [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] trade.<ref name="Daniels2005">{{cite book|author=Timothy P. Daniels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv6ezG3V968C&pg=PA18|title=Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia: Identity, Representation, and Citizenship|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-415-94971-2|pages=18–}}</ref><ref name="Newton">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA11|title=The Cambridge History of the British Empire: New Zealand. 7/2|publisher=CUP Archive|year=1933|pages=11–|id=GGKEY:55QQ9L73P70}}</ref> His intention was described in his own words when he arrived to Malacca:

{{blockquote|If they were only to take "Malaca" out of the hands of the [[Moors]], [[Cairo]] and [[Mecca]] would be entirely ruined, and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] would then be able to obtain no spiceries except what her merchants might buy in Portugal.|Report on [[Alfonso de Albuquerque|Albuquerque]]'s words on his arrival to Malacca.<ref name="Newton"/>}}

The Portuguese launch their first attack on 25 July 1511, but this was met with failure. Albuquerque then launched another attack on 15 August 1511, which proved successful as [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|Malacca was captured on that day]].<ref name="Newton" /> The Portuguese constructed a fortress called [[A Famosa]] using rocks and stones taken from Muslim graves, mosques, and other buildings. Several churches and convents, a bishop's palace, and administrative buildings such as the governor's palace were built. The Portuguese imposed higher taxes on Chinese traders and restricted their ownership of land.<ref name="Daniels2005" /> The news of the city's capture reached the Ming dynasty of China; the Chinese were also displeased about the kidnapping of many Chinese children by the Portuguese in [[Tuen Mun]].<ref name="Hao2011">{{cite book|author=Zhidong Hao|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LP9q1dzVRYQC&pg=PA11|title=Macau History and Society|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-988-8028-54-2|pages=11–}}</ref> In retaliation for Portugal's activity in Malacca, several Portuguese were later killed by the Chinese in the battles of [[Battle of Tunmen|Tunmen]] and [[Battle of Xicaowan|Xicaowan]] in China.<ref name="Hao2011" />