Editing Magellanic Clouds (section)

== History ==
They may be the objects mentioned by the [[polymath]] [[Ibn Qutaybah]] (d. 889 CE), in his book on ''Al-Anwā̵’'' (the stations of the Moon in [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n culture):

<blockquote><p>وأسفل من سهيل قدما سهيل . وفى مجرى قدمى سهيل، من خلفهما كواكب زهر كبار، لا ترى بالعراق، يسميها أهل تهامة  الأعبار</p>
<p>And below [[Canopus]], there are the feet of Canopus, and on their extension, behind them bright big stars, not seen in [[Iraq]], the people of [[Tihama]] call them ''al-a‘bār''.<ref>{{cite web
| title=Al-Anwaa, Ibn Qutaybah
| access-date=4 Sep 2017
| url=http://shamela.ws/browse.php/book-9093#page-204
| archive-date=24 July 2017
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724134136/http://shamela.ws/browse.php/book-9093#page-204
| url-status=dead
}}</ref></p></blockquote>

Later [[Al Sufi]], a professional astronomer,<ref>{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/Bios/alsufi.html | access-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> in 964 CE, in his ''[[Book of Fixed Stars]]'', mentioned the same quote, but with a different spelling. Under [[Argo Navis]], he quoted that "unnamed others have claimed that beneath [[Canopus]] there are two stars known as the 'feet of Canopus', and beneath those there are bright white stars that are unseen in [[Iraq]] nor [[Najd]], and that the inhabitants of [[Tihama]] call them ''al-Baqar'' [cows], and [[Ptolemy]] did not mention any of this so we [Al-Sufi] do not know if this is true or false."<ref>{{cite web
| title=Book of Fixed Stars, Al-Sufi (manuscript written and illustrated by his son)
| access-date=22 Feb 2017
| url=http://bodley30.bodley.ox.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet/detail/ODLodl~23~23~125630~142720?sort=Shelfmark%2Csort_order&qvq=q:ms.%2Bmarsh%2B144;sort:Shelfmark%2Csort_order;lc:ODLodl~29~29,ODLodl~7~7,ODLodl~6~6,ODLodl~14~14,ODLodl~8~8,ODLodl~23~23,ODLodl~1~1,ODLodl~24~24&mi=372&trs=436
}}</ref> Both Ibn Qutaybah and Al-Sufi were probably quoting from the former's contemporary (and compatriot) and famed scientist [[Abu Hanifa Dinawari]]'s mostly lost work on Anwaa. Abu Hanifa was probably quoting earlier sources, which may be just travelers stories, and hence Al-Sufi's comments about their veracity.

In [[Europe]], the Clouds were reported by 16th century Italian authors [[Peter Martyr d'Anghiera]] and [[Andrea Corsali]], both based on Portuguese voyages.<ref>For Peter Martyr d'Anghiera's mention of the Magellanic clouds, see:

*  Petrus Martyr de Anghiera (1574) ''De rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo'' [Concerning the ocean and the new world] (Cologne, (Germany):  Geruinum Calenium (Gerwin Calenius), 1574), decade 3, book 1, [https://archive.org/stream/hin-wel-all-00001171-001#page/n272/mode/2up p. 217.] (in Latin) From p. 217: "Assecuti sunt Portugallenses alterius poli gradum quintum & quinquagesimum amplius, ubi punctum, circumeuntes quasdam nubeculas licet intueri, veluti in lactea via sparsos fulgores per universum coeli globum intra eius spatii latitudinem." ("The Portuguese reached beyond the 55th degree of the other pole, where one may observe certain nebulae revolving around the point [i.e., the southern celestial pole], scattered in the Milky Way like luminous patches throughout the whole sphere of the sky, within the breadth of its extent."  [That is, nebulae appear in or beside the Milky Way throughout its entire length in the southern sky.])
*  Humboldt, Alexander von, with [[E.C. Otte]] and B.H. Paul, trans., ''Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe'' (London, England:  Henry G. Bohn, 1852), vol. 4, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ifV8phy_iPsC&pg=PA340 pp. 340–341.]
*  For further details of – and other editions of – Peter Martyr d'Anghiera's book ''De Orbe Novo'', see Wikipedia's article:  [[Decades of the New World]]</ref><ref>From 1515 to 1517, Andrea Corsali sailed to the East Indies and China in a Portuguese ship.  In 1516, Andrea Corsali sent a letter to [[Giuliano de' Medici, Duke of Nemours]], mentioning the Magellanic clouds.  This letter was translated into English by [[Richard Eden (translator)|Richard Eden]] (c.1520–1576) and published in 1555.  The relevant part of Corsali's letter (translated by Eden) appears in:
*  Richard Eden, with Edward Arber, ed., ''The First Three English Books on America'' ... (Birmingham, England:  1885), "Of the pole antarike and the starres abowt the same ... ", [https://archive.org/stream/firstthreeenglis00arberich#page/278/mode/2up p. 279.]  Corsali said that his ship had passed the Cape of Good Hope ("the cape of Bona Speranza") and was at 37 degrees south latitude when he observed the Magellanic clouds: "Here we sawe a marueylous order of starres, so that in the parte of heauen contrary to owre northe pole, to know in what place and degree the south pole was, we tooke the day with the soonne, and obserued the nyght with the Astrolabie, and sawe manifestly twoo clowdes of reasonable bygnesse mouynge abowt the place of the pole continually now rysynge and nowe faulynge, so keepynge theyr continuall course in circular mouying, with a starre euer in the myddest which is turned abowt with them abowte xi degrees from the pole." ("Here we saw a marvelous arrangement of stars, so that in the part of heaven [that is] opposite our north [celestial] pole, in order to know in what place and degree [of latitude] the south [celestial] pole was, we [measured our position during] the day using the sun, and observed [our position during] the night using an [[astrolabe]], and saw clearly two clouds of reasonable bigness revolving around the location of the [southern celestial] pole, continually now rising and now falling, thus maintaining their continual course of circular motion, with a star always in the middle [between them], which revolves with them about 11 degrees from the [south celestial] pole.")
*  See also:  Kanas, Nick, ''Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography'', 2nd ed. (New York, New York:  Springer Science + Business Media, 2012), § 4.3.2.2 Andreas Corsali, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bae3LP4tfP4C&pg=PA118 p. 118.]</ref> Subsequently, they were reported by [[Antonio Pigafetta]], who accompanied the expedition of [[Ferdinand Magellan]] on its circumnavigation of the world in 1519–1522.<ref>Pigafetta et al., with Lord Stanley of Alderley, trans., ''The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan'' (London, England:  Hakluyt Society, 1874), [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hn4xki;view=1up;seq=146 p. 66.]  From p. 66:  "The antarctic pole is not so covered with stars as the arctic, for there are to be seen there many small stars congregated together, which are like to two clouds a little separated from one another, and a little dimmed..."</ref><ref name="allen" /> However, naming the clouds after Magellan did not become widespread until much later. In Bayer's ''[[Uranometria]]'' they are designated as ''nubecula major'' and ''nubecula minor''.<ref>Bayer Johann (1603) ''Uranometria''. Augsburg, (Germany):  Christoph Mang. [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/bayer-southern.html Star chart 49.]  The Large Magellanic Cloud (''Nubecula major'') appears below the chart's center and just above the fish Dorado; the Small Magellanic Cloud (''Nubecula minor'') appears to the left and below the chart's center and touches the right side of Hydrus the water snake.</ref><ref>[http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/library/historical/images-of-historical-objects-artwork-in-library/rare-books/images/bayer2/BayerUran1661PiscisTop.jpg/view Bayer, J., (1661) ''Uranometria'', pl. Aaa (49)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722212747/http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/library/historical/images-of-historical-objects-artwork-in-library/rare-books/images/bayer2/BayerUran1661PiscisTop.jpg/view |date=2011-07-22 }} U.S. Naval Observatory; retrieved on 2009-09-05</ref> In the 1756 star map of the French astronomer [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille|Lacaille]], they are designated as ''le Grand Nuage'' and ''le Petit Nuage'' ("the Large Cloud" and "the Small Cloud").<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de la Caille |title=Table des ascensions droites et des déclinaisons apparentes des étoiles australes renfermées dans le tropique cu Capricorne; observées au cap de Bonne-espérance, dans l'intervalle du 6 Août 1751, au 18 Juillet 1752 |journal=Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, avec les Mémoires de Mathématique & de Physique de l'Académie Royale des Sciences |date=1752 |pages=539–592 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88113#page/348/mode/1up |trans-title=Table of the apparent right ascensions and declinations of the southern stars contained within the Tropic of Capricorn; observed at the Cape of Good Hope during the period from 6 August 1751 to 18 July 1752 |language=French}}  See the [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88113#page/404/mode/1up plate (''Planisphere contenant des constellations celestes comprises entre le pole austral et le Tropique du Capricorne''] [Planisphere containing the celestial constellations included between the south [celestial] pole and the Tropic of Capricorn]) following p. 592.  (The Large Magellanic Cloud (''Le Grand Nuage'') and the Small Magellanic Cloud (''Le Petit Nuage'') appear just below the center of the diagram.)</ref><ref>[http://www.lindahall.org/events_exhib/exhibit/exhibits/stars/lac.htm de Lacaille, N. L., (1756) ''Planisphere contenant les Constellations Celestes'', ''Memoires Academie Royale des Sciences'' pour 1752.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509193226/http://www.lindahall.org/events_exhib/exhibit/exhibits/stars/lac.htm |date=2009-05-09 }} Linda Hall Library; retrieved on 2009-09-05</ref> [[John Herschel]] studied the Magellanic Clouds from South Africa, writing an 1847 report detailing 919 objects in the Large Magellanic Cloud and 244 objects in the Small Magellanic Cloud.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Herschel |first1=John F.W. |title=Results of Astronomical Observations Made During the Years 1834, 5, 6, 7, 8 at the Cape of Good Hope |date=1847 |publisher=Smith, Elder and Co. |location=London, England |pages=151–165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WBNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA151}}</ref> In 1867 [[Cleveland Abbe]] suggested that they were separate satellites of the Milky Way.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abbe |first1=Cleveland |title=On the distribution of the nebulae in space |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=1867 |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=257–264 |doi=10.1093/mnras/27.7.257a |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433110033127&view=1up&seq=269|doi-access=free }}  From p. 262:  "2. The Nebulae resolved and unresolved lie in general without [i.e., outside of] the ''Via Lactea'' [i.e., Milky Way], which is therefore essentially stellar.  3. The visible universe is composed of systems, of which the ''Via Lactea'', the two ''Nubeculae'' [sic] [i.e., Magellanic Clouds], and the Nebulae, are individuals, and which are themselves composed of stars (either simple, multiple, or in clusters) and of gaseous bodies of both regular and irregular outlines."</ref> Distances were first estimated by [[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] in 1913 using 1912 measurements of [[Cepheid variables]] in the SMC by [[Henrietta Leavitt]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hertzsprung |first1=E. |title=Über die räumliche Verteilung der Veränderlichen vom δ Cephei-Typus |journal=Astronomische Nachrichten |date=1913 |volume=196 |issue=4692 |pages=201–208 |bibcode=1913AN....196..201H |trans-title=On the spatial distribution of variable [stars] of the δ Cepheid type |language=German |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1913AN....196..201H }}  From p. 204: "Zunächst ergibt sich eine Parallaxe der kleinen Magellanschen Wolke. ... und als außerhalb der Milchstraße liegend zu betrachten sein."  (First, a parallax of the Small Magellanic Cloud follows.  According to the 13 δ Cepheid variable [stars] that are treated above, the absolute brightness (the mean between the maximum and the minimum) of -7.3 m corresponds to a period of 6.6 days.  Variable [stars] of the period 6.6 days have in the Small Magellanic Cloud a mean photographic star size of 14.5 m.  If one assumes — according to the universal yellow color of the δ Cepheid variables — a color index of + 1.5 m, then the corresponding visual star size will equal 13.0 m.  This consideration thus leads to a parallax ''p'' of the Small Magellanic Cloud, which is given by 5 log ''p'' = -7.3 - 13.0 = -20.3.  One obtains ''p'' =  0.0001", corresponding to a distance of about 3000 light-years.  Since the galactic latitude of the Small Magellanic Cloud amounts to about - 45°, then it would lie — according to the foregoing — about 2000 light-years from a plane [passing] through our Sun [and] lying parallel to the Milky Way and [it] would have to be regarded as lying outside the Milky Way.)</ref><ref>Leavitt, Henrietta S.; Pickering, Edward C. (March 3, 1912). [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1912HarCi.173....1L/0000003.000.html   "Periods of 25 Variable Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud"]. ''Harvard College Observatory Circular'' no. 173.
* Summarized in German:  {{cite journal |last1=Pickering |first1=E.C. |last2=Wendell |first2=O.C. |title=Mitteilungen über veränderliche Sterne |journal=Astronomische Nachrichten |date=1912 |volume=192 |issue=13 |pages=219–226 |doi=10.1002/asna.19121921303 |bibcode=1912AN....192..219P |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1912AN....192..219 |trans-title=Reports about variable stars |language=German}}  See pp. 225-226.</ref> Recalibration of the Cepheid scales allowed [[Harlow Shapley]] to refine the measurement,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shapley |first1=Harlow |title=Studies on the colors and magnitudes in stellar clusters. Seventh paper: The distances, distributions in space, and dimensions of 69 globular clusters |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=1918 |volume=48 |pages=154–181 |doi=10.1086/142423 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044059981803&view=1up&seq=172&skin=2021|doi-access=free }}  See p. 155.</ref> and these were again revised in 1952 following further research.<ref name="leverington1">{{cite book |last1=Leverington |first1=David |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-89994-9 |pages=231–232}}</ref>